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FREDERIC  P.  STEARNS 


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STATE  SANITATION 


A  REVIEW  OF  THE  WORK 

OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  BOARD 

OF  HEALTH 


BY 


GEORGE  CHANDLER  WHIPPLE 

PROFESSOR  OF  SANITARY  ENGINEERING  IN  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

AND  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 

MEMBER  OF  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  COUNCIL 

MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH 


VOLUME  II 


CAMBRIDGE 
HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON:   HUMPHREY  MttFORD 

Oxford  University  Press 

1917 


COPYRIGHT,   19 1 7 
HARVARD  tJNIVERSITY  PRESS 


\r\f   r  'I 


FOREWORD 

A  MOST  interesting  way  of  studying  history  is  that  of  reading 
original  documents,  addresses  and  writings  by  contempora- 
ries of  the  events  described;  and  this  is  just  as  true  in  the 
field  of  public  health  as  in  that  of  general  history.  There 
are  no  more  important  series  of  scientific  writings  on  subjects 
pertaining  to  preventive  medicine,  hygiene  and  sanitation 
than  those  which  have  appeared  in  the  annual  reports  and 
special  reports  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health 
during  the  period,  covering  nearly  half  a  century,  from  1869 
to  1 9 14.  Several  hundred  in  number  and  scattered  through 
sixty  or  seventy  volumes,  some  of  which  can  be  found  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty,  these  writings  are  in  danger  of 
being  lost  to  the  world,  or,  at  least,  of  escaping  the  attention 
of  present  day  students  of  pubhc  health. 

The  best  way  to  rescue  these  reports  from  obhvion  seemed 
to  be  to  index  them  and  in  addition  to  prepare  a  series  of  ab- 
stracts of  leading  articles,  while  the  best  way  to  give  new  Hfe 
to  the  most  important  writings,  which  might  appropriately 
be  called  the  Massachusetts  Classics  in  Sanitation,  seemed 
to  be  to  reprint  them,  with  such  abridgment  as  might  be 
necessary  to  bring  them  within  the  compass  of  a  single  book. 
Such  reprints  and  abstracts  are  given  in  the  present  volume. 
It  is  hoped  that  these  writings  which  inspired  the  fathers  will 
also  inspire  the  sons. 

In  making  the  selections  especial  prominence  has  been 
given  to  the  subjects  of  water  supply  and  sewage  disposal, 
for  it  was  in  the  investigation  of  these  subjects  that  the  State 
Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  acquired  early  fame.  In 
these  writings  the  names  of  Nichols,  Mills,  Stearns,  Drown, 


iv  FOREWORD 

Sedgwick,  Hazen,  Goodnough  and  Clark  stand  out  promi- 
nently. But  the  reprinted  writings  include  also  inspiring 
addresses  by  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch  on  the  subjects  of  pub- 
lic health,  preventive  medicine,  the  physician  of  the  future, 
and  intemperance;  the  statesmanlike  reports  of  Dr.  Henry 
P.  Walcott  on  such  great  metropohtan  improvements  as  the 
water  supply  and  sewerage  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs,  and 
the  Charles  River  Basin;  the  wonderfully  exact  scientific 
investigations  of  Dr.  Theobald  Smith  in  the  field  of  bacteri- 
ology; the  careful  statistical  researches  of  Dr.  Samuel  W. 
Abbott;  the  dairy  studies  of  the  impetuous  Secretary,  Dr. 
Charles  Harrington,  as  well  as  some  of  the  more  modern 
writings  on  infantile  paralysis  by  Dr.  Mark  Richardson  and 
food  inspection  by  Mr.  Hermann  H.  Lythgoe. 

The  abstracts  are  arranged  chronologically  in  order  that 
the  reader  may  obtain  a  better  perspective  of  the  studies 
with  which  the  sanitarians  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
were  concerned  at  different  periods  of  its  history. 

The  joint  indices  to  the  annual  reports  and  special  reports 
will  be  published  as  a  third  volume. 

The  proof  of  this  volume  was  corrected  at  long  range  dur- 
ing the  author's  journey  to  Russia  as  a  Member  of  the  Red 
Cross  Mission  to  that  country.  The  chances  for  errors  to 
escape  notice  are  therefore  greater  than  usual  and  the  reader 
is  asked  to  be  charitable  if  such  are  found.  The  index  to 
this  volume  was  very  kindly  prepared  by  Mr.  Melville  C. 
Whipple,  Instructor  in  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, to  whom  I  wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks. 


George  Chandler  Whipple. 


ToKio,  Japan 
July,  1917 


CONTENTS 

PART   III 
REPRINTED   SCIENTIFIC  WRITINGS 

PAGE 

I.  State  Medicine 3 

\  HeNHY  I.    BOWDITCH,  1870 

II.  The  Public  Health 9 

Circular  Letter,  1870 

III.  Intemperance  in  the  Light  of  the  Cosmic  Law     .    .       12 

Henry  I.  Bowditch,  1872 

IV.  Preventive  Medicine  and  the  Physician  of  the  Future      i  7 

HE>fRY  I.  Bowditch,  1874 

V.  The  Filtration  of  Potable  Water 26 

Wm.  Ripley  Nichols,  1878 

VI.  On   Some  Impurities  of  Drinking-water   Caused   by 

Vegetable  Growths 39 

Wm.  G.  Farlow,  1879 

VII.  A  Study  of  the  Relative  Poisonous  Effects  of  Coal 

AND  Water  Gas 47 

Wm.  T.  Sedgwick  and  Wm.  Ripley  Nichols,  1884 

VIII.  Report  of  a  Commission  to  Consider  a  General  System 
OF  Drainage  for  the  Valleys  of  the  Mystic,  Black- 
stone  AND  Charles  Rivers 58 

Henry  P.  Walcott,  1886 

IX.  Micro-organisms  in  the  Air  of  the  Boston  City  Hos- 
pital        65 

Greenleaf  R.  Tucker,  1888 

X.  Pollution  of  Ice  Supplies 77 

State  Board  of  Health,^  1889 

XL  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sew- 
erage OF  THE  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys      86 

State  Board  of  Health,^  1889 

XII.  Suggestions  as  to  the  Selection  of  Sources  of  Water 

Supply 106 

Frederic  P.  Stearns,  1890 

XIII.  The  Growth  of  Children  Studied  by  Galton's  Method 

OF  Percentile  Grades 119 

H.  p.  Bowditch,  1890 

XIV.  Typhoid  Fever  in  its  Relation  to  Water  Supplies  .    .     131 

Hiram  F.  Mills,  1890 

XV.  A  Classification  of  the  Drinking-waters  of  the  State    139 

State  Board  of  Health,^  1890 

'  The  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  were  almost  invariably  written  by  the  Chairman, 
Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott. 


vi  CONTENTS 

XVI.  The  Effect  of  Storage  upon  the  Taste  and  Odor  of 

Surface  Waters i44 

Frederic  P.  Stearns  and  Thomas  M.  Drown,  1890 

XVII.  The  Pollution  of  Streams 156 

Frederic  P.  Stearns,  1890 

XVIII.  The  Filtration  of  Sewage,  a  General  View  of  Re- 
sults of  Experiments  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment 
Station 172 

Hiram  F.  Mills,  1890 

XIX.  The  Chemical  Precipitation  of  Sewage     188 

Allen  Hazen,  1890 

XX.  Microscopical  Analysis     192 

Wm.  T.  Sedgwick,  1890 

XXI.  Investigations  upon  Nitrification  and  the  Nitrifying 

Organism     208 

Edwin  O.  Jordan  and  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  1890 

XXII.  The  Interpretation  of  Water  Analyses 218 

Thomas  M.  Drown,  1892 

XXIII.  Some  Physical  Properties  of  Sands  and  Gravels,  with 

Special  Reference  to  Their  Use  in  Filtration.    .     232 

Allen  Hazen,  1892 

XXIV.  Report  of  the  Joint  Board  upon  the  Improvement  of 

Charles  River 249 

Metropolitan  Park  Commission  and  State  Board  of  Health,  1894 

XXV.  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  a  Met- 
ropolitan Water  Supply 260 

State  Board  of  Health,'  189s 

XXVI.  A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Toxin  Production  of 

Diphtheria  Bacilli 274 

Theobald  Smith  and  Ernest  L.  Walker,  1896 

XXVII.  Sanitary  Condition  and  Improvement  of  the  Nepon- 

SET  Meadows     293 

State  Board  of  Health,'  1897 

XXVIII.  A  Massachusetts  Life  Table  for  the    Five   Years 

1893-97 300 

Samuel  W.  Abbott,  1898 

XXIX.  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Gen- 
eral Subject  of  the  Discharge  of  Sewage  into 
Boston  Harbor 317 

State  Board  of  Health,'    1900 

XXX.  Examination  of  Sewer  Outlets  in  Boston  Harbor  and 
of  Tidal  Waters  and  Flats  from  which  Shellfish 

ARE  TAKEN  FOR  FoOD 322 

X.  H.  Goodnough,  190S 

XXXI.  Inspection  of  Dairies 333 

Charles  W.  Harrington,  1905 

1  The  reports  of  the   State  Board  of  Health  were  ahnost  invariably  written  by  the  Chairman, 
Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott. 


CONTENTS  vii 

XXXII.  A  Review  of  Twenty-one  Years'  Experiments  upon 
THE  Purification  of  Sewage  at  the  Lawrence  Ex- 
periment Station 341 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  DeM.  Gage,  1908 

XXXIII.  The  Occurrence  of  Infantile   Paralysis  in   Massa- 

chusetts, 1907-12 350 

Mark  W.  Richardson,  1912 

XXXIV.  Food  and   Drug  Inspection    of   the   Massachusetts 

State  Board  of  Health 366 

Hermann  C.  Lythgoe,  1914 

PART   IV 
ABSTRACTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS 

State  Board  of  Health;  Annual  Reports: 

First,  1870 377 

Second,  1871 377 

Third,  1872 380 

Fourth,  1873 382 

Fifth,  1874 384 

Sixth,  1875      387 

Seventh,  1876 388 

Eighth,  1877 391 

Ninth,  1878 393 

Tenth,  1879 395 

Eleventh,  1879 396 

State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy  and  Charity;  Supplements  to 
Annual  Reports  : 

First,  1879 396 

Second,  1880 397 

Third,  1881 398 

Fourth,  1882 399 

Fifth,  1883      400 

Sixth,  1884 400 

Seventh,  1885 401 

State  Board  of  Health;  Annual  Reports: 

Eighteenth,  1886 402 

Nineteenth,  1887 402 

Twentieth,  1888 403 

Twenty-first,  1889 403 

Twenty-second,  1890 404 

State  Board  of  Health  ;  Special  Reports    on   Water  Supply 
AND  Sewerage: 

Part  I,  1890 405 

Part  II,  1890 407 

State  Board  of  Health;  Annual  Reports: 

Twenty-third,  1891 410 

Twenty-fourth,  1892 412 


viii  .  CONTENTS 

State  Board  of  Health;  Annual  Reports  —  continued 

Twenty-fifth,  1893 414 

Twenty-sixth,  1894 41S 

Twenty-seventh,  1895 416 

Twenty-eighth,  1896 416 

Twenty-ninth,  1897 417 

Thirtieth,  1898 417 

Thirty-first,  1899 418 

Thirty-second,  1900 418 

Thirty-third,  1901      419 

Thirty-fourth,  1902 420 

Thirty-fifth,  1903 421 

Thirty-sixth,  1904      421 

Thirty-seventh,  1905 421 

Thirty-eighth,  1906 422 

Thirty-ninth,  1907 423 

Fortieth,  1908 425 

Forty-first,  1909 425 

Forty-second,  1910 426 

Forty-third,  191 1 426 

Forty-fourth,  191 2 426 

Forty-fifth,  1913 427 

Forty-sixth,  1914 427 

State  Board  of  Health;  Special  Reports: 

Sewerage  of  the  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys,  1889  ....  429 

Improvement  of  Charles  River,  1894 43° 

MetropoUtan  Water  Supply,  1895      43° 

Improvement  of  Upper  Charles  River,  1896 432 

Improvement  of  Neponset  River,  1897      433 

Cerebro-spinal  Meningitis,  1898      433 

Restoration  of  Green  Harbor,  1898 434 

Sewerage  of  Salem  and  Peabody,  1898.    .      . 434 

Discharge  of  Sewage  into  Boston  Harbor,  1900 435 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Sudbury  and  Concord  Rivers,  1901     ...  435 

Undertaking  and  Embalming,  1904 436 

Dumping  Garbage  into  Harbors,  1904 436 

Mystic  River  and  Ale  wife  Brook,  1906 436 

Water  Supply  of  Lynn,  1907 437 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Merrimack  River,  1908 437 

Pollution  of  Boston  Harbor,  1908 438 

Green  Harbor,  1909 438 

Lake  Quannapowitt,  1909 438 

Sewage  Disposal  for  Worcester  Insane  Hospital,  1909 439 

Water  Supply  of  Salem,  Beverly  and  Peabody,  191 1      439 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Merrimack  River,  1913 439 

Danvers  River  and  its  Estuaries,  1913 44° 

Dorchester  Bay,  1913 440 

Sewerage  of  Reading,  1914 441 

Index 443 


PART  III 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  REPORTS  OF  THE 

MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  BOARD 

OF  HEALTH 


STATE  MEDICINE 
By  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch 

QAddress  of  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch  to  the  Gentlemen  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board,  held  at  the  State  House,  September  15, 
1869.    First  Annual  Report,  1870,  p.  9.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

By  the  orders  of  the  Governor  of  the  Commonwealth,  it  de- 
volves upon  me  to  call  you  together.  As  the  subject-matters  for 
our  discussion  may  be  somewhat  indefinite  in  all  of  our  minds,  I 
take  the  hberty  of  addressing  a  few  words  to  you,  in  order  that 
you  may  know  not  only  what  I  consider  the  general  nature  of  our 
duties,  but  may  also  understand  how  high  I  place  these  duties 
when  I  consider  them  in  their  relations  to  the  present  and  future 
health  of  the  citizens  of  the  state.  I  may  be  mistaken  in  my  esti- 
mate of  the  importance  of  the  movement,  the  commencement  of 
which  today  devolves  upon  us.  I  confess  to  you  that  I  know  of 
no  higher  office  in  the  state  than  that  which  we  now  hold,  viz., 
that  of  inaugurating  the  idea  of  "  State  Medicine  "  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Upon  our  high  or  low  appreciation  of  the  position  and 
of  the  duties  resulting  from  that  position,  and  upon  our  wise  or 
foolish  performance  of  these  duties,  depends  the  success  of  the 
object  aimed  at  in  the  establishment  of  a  State  Board  of  Health. 
The  last  Legislature,  unconsciously,  perhaps,  on  the  part  of  many 
members  thereof,  has  proposed  a  system  that  may  be  made  by  us 
capable  of  good  to  the  citizens  in  all  future  time,  or  it  may  prove  a 
perfect  abortion.  Our  work  is  for  the  far  future  as  well  as  for  the 
present,  and  at  this  very  opening  of  our  labors  we  should  try  to 
place  ourselves  above  the  region  of  merely  local  or  temporary 
excitement  or  of  partisan  warfare,  in  order  that  we  may  act  wisely 
and  for  the  ultimate  good  of  the  whole  people. 

In  these  introductory  general  remarks,  as  you  will  see,  my 
object  has  been  to  impress  upon  you  my  views  of  the  essential 
dignity  of  the  offices  we  now  hold,  and  that  we  should  assume 


4  STATE  SANITATION 

them  with  minds  loyal  to  the  truth  and  under  a  sense  of  individual 
responsibility  in  the  premises. 

I  have  used  one  expression  about  which  I  wish  to  enter  into 
some  detail,  viz.,  "  State  Medicine  in  Massachusetts."  What  is 
the  precise  meaning  of  the  expression  ?  It  is  of  very  recent  growth 
in  our  language.  It  has,  in  fact,  arisen,  I  believe,  within  the  last 
few  years  in  England,  where  already  it  has  become  a  great  power 
for  good.  Its  objects  rank  among  the  most  important  matters 
now  discussed  by  the  highest  intellects  and  humanest  hearts  in 
Great  Britain.  It  is,  as  I  understand  it,  a  special  function  of  a 
state  authority,  which,  until  these  later  days  of  scientific  investi- 
gation, has  been  left  almost  wholly  unperformed,  or  exercised  only 
under  the  greatest  incitements  to  its  operation,  such  as  the  coming 
of  the  plague,  cholera,  smallpox,  or  some  other  equally  malignant 
disease.  By  this  function  the  authorities  of  a  state  are  bound 
to  take  care  of  the  public  health,  to  investigate  the  causes  of 
epidemic  and  other  diseases,  in  order  that  each  citizen  may  not 
only  have  as  long  a  life  as  nature  would  give  him,  but  likewise  as 
healthy  a  life  as  possible.  As  the  chief  object  of  the  physician  is 
the  cure,  if  possible,  of  any  ailment  which  is  submitted  to  his  care, 
so  the  far  higher  aim  of  State  Medicine  is,  by  its  thorough  and 
scientific  investigations  of  the  hidden  causes  of  diseases  that  are 
constantly  at  work  in  an  ignorant  or  debased  community,  to  pre- 
vent the  very  origination  of  such  diseases.  Much  has  already 
been  suggested  in  England  towards  the  crushing  out  of  fevers,  etc. 
Still  more  recently  one  of  the  grandest  results  of  the  State  Medi- 
cine is  its  virtual  recognition  under  international  law,  by  the 
appointment  of  joint  governmental  commissioners  for  the  inves- 
tigation and  prevention  of  the  spread  of  Asiatic  cholera. 

The  history  of  State  Medicine  in  Great  Britain  may  be  briefly 
summed  up  as  follows:  — 

Only  twenty-one  years  ago,  namely,  in  1848,  England,  stimu- 
lated by  the  medical  profession  and  the  philanthropists,  passed  an 
Act  establishing  a  "  General  Board  of  Health."  It  gave  very  ex- 
tensive powers,  and  statements  of  its  doings  from  year  to  year  were 
published  by  Parliament.  The  Registrar-General's  reports  also 
tended  to  open  the  eyes  of  all  to  the  importance  of  more  thorough- 
ness of  work. 


STATE  MEDICINE  5 

In  the  early  part  of  1858,  the  Privy  Council  of  England  was 
directed  to  consider  the  matter  of  public  health.  Accordingly  its 
chief  medical  officer,  Mr.  Simon,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
medical  profession  of  London,  was  ordered  to  report  to  the  council 
on  any  matters  pertaining  to  that  subject.  Every  year  since  then 
he  has  sent  out,  under  official  sanction,  very  valuable  documents. 
He  has  been  allowed  to  call  to  his  aid  all  the  special  talent  in  the 
kingdom;  and  investigations  of  importance,  not  only  to  the  state, 
but  to  the  science  of  medicine,  have  been  annually  made  and  pub- 
lished by  the  council.  And  I  beg  you  to  bear  in  mind  that  all  these 
investigations  have  been  made  by  the  state  with  one  sole  object 
in  view,  viz.,  the  improvement  in  human  health,  and  for  the 
lengthening  out  of  human  Hfe  of  each  individual  man  or  woman. 
Certainly  no  object  can  be  nobler,  none  more  deserving  the  atten- 
tion of  learned  men  or  of  philanthropists  or  statesmen. 

Dr.  Farr  {Medical  Twies  and  Gazette,  July  31,  1869),  in  his  very 
recent  and  able  address  as  president  of  the  section  on  State  Medi- 
cine in  the  British  Medical  Association,  pursues  the  following  lines 
of  thought  upon  this  subject:  "  Pubhc  hygiene  is  a  want  as  much 
as  air,  and  public  roads  and  waters  are  public  necessities,  and  as 
such  must  be  cared  for  and  paid  for  by  the  community."  Dis- 
eases as  disastrous  as  those  among  the  Greek  hosts  before  Troy 
befell  the  English  camp  in  the  Crimea.  Before  Troy,  appeals  by 
prayer  were  made  to  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods;  but  God's 
divine  laws  of  hygiene  were  unknown  or  uncared  for.  During  the 
Crimean  war  the  people  of  England  not  only  prayed,  but  with 
indignant  haste  they  hurled  from  power  an  inefficient  ministry 
because  it  neglected  these  same  laws.  Out  of  this  upheaval  of  the 
nation's  heart  arose  Florence  Nightingale  and  Lord  Herbert,  with 
their  Christian  sanitary  law,  bringing  health  and  comparative 
comfort  to  the  war-worn  soldier. 

"  A  sanitary  code,"  says  Dr.  Farr,  "  is  needed,  with  proper  sani- 
tary officers;  for  otherwise  a  code  would  be  a  dead  letter."  Hence, 
continues  he,  "a  Ministry  of  Public  Health  will  eventually  be 
needed  for  the  British  Empire."  I  would  remark,  in  passing,  that 
Jeremy  Bentham  suggested  in  his  "  Constitutional  Code  "  the 
same  idea  more  than  thirty  years  ago.    "  Such  a  ministry,"  says 


6  STATE  SANITATION 

Dr.  Farr,  "  would  divide  itself  into  four  departments  —  adminis- 
tration, medicine,  engineering,  statistics  —  each  of  which  should 
be  organized  so  as  to  work  in  harmony  with  a  council  of  health 
and  executive  heads.  Each  town  should  have  its  board  of  health 
and  its  health  physician  in  communication  with  and  in  aid  of  the 
Central  Board  of  Health." 

But  pubhc  health  has  so  wide  a  field  that  help  is  needed  from 
all;  from  the  chemist,  the  engineer,  the  naturalist,  and  from  the 
humblest  citizen  as  well  as  the  highest  statesman. 

"  The  primary  object  of  public  medicine,"  says  Dr.  Farr,  "  is  to 
prevent  disease,  but  it  also  surrounds  the  sick  with  conditions 
most  favorable  to  recovery,  and  diminishes  the  death-roll  of  the 
people." 

Dr.  Farr  concludes  his  admirable  address  with  the  following 
thought:  "Supposing  every  condition  favorable  for  the  perfect 
operation  of  the  powers  of  State  Medicine,  we  should  still  see 
grave  defects  in  many  persons;  shortcomings  in  others;  in  many, 
organic  degeneracies;  in  many,  criminal  depravities. 

"  How  out  of  the  existing  seed  to  raise  races  of  men  to  divine 
perfection  is  the  final  problem  of  public  medicine." 

You  see,  gentlemen,  from  these  memoranda  taken  from  Dr. 
Farr's  address,  that  I  am  not  alone  in  considering  the  object  we 
have  to  care  for  as  among  the  highest  that  can  be  presented  to  any 
reasonable  man,  or  to  any  lover  of  his  race. 

The  establishment  of  our  Board  by  the  last  general  court  in- 
augurates this  system  of  State  Medicine  in  Massachusetts.  I 
think  that  this  is  the  first  State  Board  of  Health  established  by 
any  American  state;  at  least,  with  objects  as  extensive  as  those 
now  given  to  our  charge. 

The  law  under  which  we  act,  while  not  specifying  so  much  as  the 
English  law  of  1848,  gives  us  the  amplest  powers  for  investigation 
and  funds  at  our  disposal  for  any  legitimate  purpose. 

Let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  some  of  the  general  objects  and 
duties  involved  in  the  Act  establishing  our  Board. 

I.  It  directs  the  Board  to  take  cognizance  of  everything 
tending  to  public  health,  and  of  course  requires  us  to  endeavor  to 
eradicate  everything  tending  to  pubhc  disease  and  death. 


STATE  MEDICINE  7 

2.  It  directs  us  to  diffuse  among  the  people  a  knowledge  of  the 
means  of  obtaining  individual  and  public  health  and  of  preventing 
disease. 

3.  We  are  ordered  to  investigate  the  effects  of  the  use  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  upon  the  industry,  prosperity,  happiness,  health 
and  lives  of  the  people,  and  it  is  intimated  that  we  may  suggest 
legislation  on  any  or  all  of  the  subjects  committed  to  us  for 
investigation. 

Now  in  order  that  the  workings  of  the  Board  may  become  har- 
monious and  of  real  service,  it  is  a  self-evident  proposition  that 
exact  methods  of  procedure  must  be  followed  in  all  cases,  and  that 
certain  by-laws  for  the  legal  governance  of  the  Board  will  be  neces- 
sary, and  which  shall  not  be  varied  from  except  under  special 
directions  at  a  full  meeting  of  the  Board. 

[Dr.  Bowditch  then  proceeded  to  suggest  certain  plans  for  the 
organization  of  the  Board,  and  continued  as  follows] :  — 

The  law  requires  us  to  diffuse  among  our  people  any  already 
established  laws  of  public  health,  and  also  whatever  we  may  here- 
after discover  on  that  subject.  I  look  upon  this  feature  of  the  law 
with  deep  interest,  for  I  believe  by  it  we  may  do  much  service  to 
the  people. 

How  shall  we  diffuse  this  knowledge  ?  Permit  me  to  allude  to  a 
few  evident  methods. 

(a)  By  lectures  from  our  Secretary  or  from  members  of  the 
Board  on  various  special  subjects  connected  with  public  hygiene 
- — such  as  ventilating,  and  building,  and  location  of  houses;  on 
various  well-known  diseases  capable  of  partial  or  entire  prevention 
on  knowledge  of  causes  being  given.  It  may  be  a  question,  more- 
over, whether  we  should  not  authorize  the  Secretary  to  communi- 
cate with  lecture  committees  of  various  towns  and  the  American 
Literary  Bureaus,  and  to  make  arrangements  with  physicians  and 
others  to  deliver  lectures  relating  to  public  health  in  various 
towns. 

(6)  By  the  Secretary  holding  meetings  in  the  various  parts  of 
the  state  for  discussions  on  the  subject,  meetings  analogous  to 
those  now  held  on  education,  agriculture,  etc.  He  might  invite 
the  co-operation  of  local  medical  societies  or  special  physicians.    I 


8  STATE  SANITATION 

have  no  doubt  that  such  meetings,  properly  conducted,  would 
attract  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  public. 

(c)  By  the  publication  in  a  compact  form  and  the  wide  circula- 
tion of  the  pith,  so  to  speak,  of  our  general  knowledge  on  public 
hygiene.  How  this  should  be  done  would  remain  an  open  ques- 
tion. If  it  could  be  done,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  good  that  would 
eventually  result. 

(d)  By  our  annual  reports  to  the  Legislature,  which,  I  trust,  will 
always  be  models  of  brevity  and  of  compact  learning  —  not  a 
word  too  much  or  a  word  for  effect  merely  —  and  so  thoroughly 
indexed  that  even  the  busiest  man  on  'change  can  in  three  minutes 
get  at  the  essentials,  and  be  prepared  to  study  the  details  of  any 
part  or  parts  he  may  wish  further  to  examine. 

In  conclusion,  gentlemen,  let  me  say  that,  while  I  feel  alike  our 
grave  responsibilities  and  the  dignity  conferred  on  each  one  of  us 
by  His  Excellency  the  Governor  in  his  selection  of  us  for  these 
offices,  I  have  at  the  same  time  no  misgivings;  but  on  the  con- 
trary, the  Hveliest  hope  that  this  Board  will  faithfully  and  in  an 
able  manner  perform  its  duties,  and  thus  it  will  become  a  real 
blessing  to  our  state,  not  only  at  the  present  time,  but  long  after 
every  member  of  it  has  died.  It  will  assuredly  be  such  if  we,  the 
necessary  originators  of  its  various  details,  only  look  at  our  duties 
in  the  light  of  the  broadest  philanthropy  and,  as  far  as  in  us  Kes, 
the  wisest  statesmanship,  and  finally  with  all  the  knowledge  that 
modern  science  can  at  present  give  us. 

In  making  these  introductory  remarks,  I  have  done  only  what 
seemed  to  be  proper;  but  I  hope  that  others  will  speak  what 
seems  to  them  good,  so  that  starting  on  our  new  career  with  un- 
derstanding minds  and  buoyant  and  willing  hearts,  we  may  vigor- 
ously inaugurate  State  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


II 

THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH 

[This  circular  letter  was  issued  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  October,  1869, 
and  sent  to  the  Mayor  and  Board  of  Health  of  every  city,  to  the  Selectmen  of  every 
town,  to  every  member  of  the  Legislature  of  1869,  and  to  every  clergyman  and 
physician  in  Massachusetts.    First  Annual  Report,  1870,  pp.  15-17.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  undersigned  have  recently  been  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  council  to  constitute  the  "  State  Board  of  Health,"  under  an 
Act  passed  by  the  last  Legislature. 

In  entering  upon  our  duties,  which  are  rather  advisory  than 
executive,  we  desire  to  establish  such  communication  with  the 
local  boards  having  this  important  subject  in  charge,  that  all  may 
work  together  for  the  common  advantage  of  the  people,  for  the 
prevention  of  disease,  and  for  the  prolongation  of  life. 

We  believe  that  all  citizens  have  an  inherent  right  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  pure  and  uncontaminated  air,  and  water,  and  soil;  that 
this  right  should  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  whole  com- 
munity; and  that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  trespass  upon  it  by 
his  carelessness,  or  his  avarice,  or  even  by  his  ignorance.  This 
right  is  in  a  great  measure  recognized  by  the  state,  as  appears  by 
the  General  Statutes. 

If  these  were  strictly  and  impartially  enforced,  we  should  have  a 
condition  of  public  cleanliness,  and  of  public  health,  which  would 
make  Massachusetts  a  model  for  all  other  communities.  That 
this  has  not  been  done  depends  upon  many  causes,  some  of 
general,  and  others  of  purely  local  operation. 

It  has  been  doubted,  whether  the  public  mind  is  sufficiently 
aware  of  the  dangerous  elements  around  us;  whether  the  connec- 
tion between  filth  and  disease  is  as  yet  proved  to  the  public  satis- 
faction; whether  the  people  are  convinced  that  undrained  land  is 
unwholesome  to  live  upon. 

All  these  doubts  of  the  public  intelligence  have  impeded  the 
operation  of  our  laws. 


lo  STATE  SANITATION 

It  is  thought  also  that  local  and  private  interests  have  often 
been  so  strong  as  to  paralyze  the  action  of  the  health  authorities. 

But  we  hope  and  believe  that  a  better  time  is  coming;  and  we 
confidently  look  to  you  to  put  in  force  the  powers  which  the  laws 
have  placed  in  your  hands. 

Among  these  laws  we  would  particularly  call  your  attention 
to  — 

General  Statutes,  chapter  26,  in  which  are  comprised  stringent 
provisions  relative  to  the  abatement  of  nuisances,  to  vaccination, 
to  contagion,  and  to  offensive  trades. 

Also,  to  chapter  49,  section  151,  relative  to  the  sale  of  milk  pro- 
duced from  cows  fed  upon  the  refuse  of  breweries  or  distilleries, 
and  to  the  sale  of  milk  rendered  unwholesome  by  any  cause. 

Also,  to  chapter  166,  in  which  the  law  is  given  relative  to  the 
sale  of  unwholesome  provisions  of  all  kinds,  whether  for  meat  or 
drink;  the  corruption  of  springs,  wells,  reservoirs,  or  aqueducts; 
the  sale  of  dangerous  drugs,  and  the  adulteration  of  drugs  of  every 
sort. 

It  will  also  be  seen,  on  reference  to  chapter  2 1 1  of  the  Acts  of  the 
year  1866,  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  any  person,  aggrieved  by  the 
neglect  of  the  board  of  health  of  any  city  or  town  to  abate  a  nui- 
sance, to  appeal  to  the  county  commissioners,  who  can  in  that  case 
exercise  all  the  powers  of  the  board  of  health. 

Chapter  253  of  the  Acts  of  1866  authorizes  boards  of  health  to 
seize  and  destroy  the  meat  of  any  calf  killed  when  less  than  four 
weeks  old. 

Chapter  271  of  the  Acts  of  1866  authorizes  boards  of  health  to 
appoint  agents,  to  act  for  them,  under  certain  restrictions. 

The  Legislature  of  1868  passed  two  Acts  of  great  importance  to 
the  public  health,  to  which  we  would  respectfully  and  earnestly 
ask  your  attention.  The  first,  chapter  281,  1868,  applies  only  to 
the  city  of  Boston,  and  relates  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses, 
placing  them  under  very  strict  regulations,  for  the  public  good. 

The  second,  chapter  160,  is  of  general  application.  It  provides 
that  in  any  city  or  town,  lands  which  are  wet,  rotten  or  spongy,  or 
covered  with  stagnant  water,  so  as  to  be  offensive,  or  injurious  to 
health,  shall  be  deemed  a  nuisance,  to  be  abated  by  the  board  of 


THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  ii 

health  of  such  city  or  town.  In  case  they  refuse  to  act,  appeal  may 
be  made,  by  persons  aggrieved,  to  the  superior  court  or  any  justice 
thereof,  who  may  appoint  three  commissioners  with  powers  equal 
to  those  possessed  by  boards  of  health. 

We  confidently  look  to  you  for  the  enforcement  of  these  laws. 

We  beheve  that  public  opinion  will  fully  support  you  in  so 
doing. 

We  will  give  you  all  the  help  in  our  power. 

There  is  a  great  work  before  us,  which,  if  carried  out  in  the 
letter  and  spirit  of  the  laws  referred  to,  we  cannot  doubt  will 
justify  the  wisdom  which  framed  them. 

In  making  this  our  first  communication  to  the  boards  of  health 
of  the  various  cities  and  towns  of  the  Commonwealth,  we  sincerely 
hope  that  it  may  serve  as  the  opening  of  friendly  and  helpful  rela- 
tions between  us,  and  that  it  will  lead  to  reforms,  the  effects  of 
which  will  be  evident  in  the  improved  condition  of  pubUc  health. 

Communications  addressed  to  our  secretary,  Dr.  George  Derby, 
State  House,  Boston,  will  be  at  once  acknowledged,  and  will  be 
laid  before  the  State  Board  of  Health  at  their  next  meeting. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servants, 

Henry  I.  Bowditch, 
George  Derby, 
Robert  T.  Davis, 
Richard  Frothingham, 
P.  Emory  Aldrich, 
Warren  Sawyer, 
William  C.  Chapin, 

State  Board  of  Health. 


Ill 

INTEMPERANCE  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  COSMIC 
LAW 

By  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch 

[Sximmary  of  the  principal  subjects  considered  in  a  letter  of  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bow- 
ditch  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  on  Intemperance  as  seen  in  the  light  of  cosmic 
law.    Third  Annual  Report,  January,  1872,  pp.  72-73,  109-112.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

In  our  Second  Annual  Report  is  printed  a  correspondence  on 
the  use  and  abuse  of  alcoholic  stimulants  among  foreign  nations, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  same  with  our  own  country  in  this  par- 
ticular. I  think  this  correspondence  is  unique  not  only  for  the 
extent  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  it  embraces,  but  likewise 
for  the  character  of  our  correspondents.  Last  year,  owing  to 
want  of  time,  the  letters  were  printed  without  comment,  except  a 
most  imperfect  analysis  of  them. 

I  have  thought  that  they  should  receive  more  attention  from  us, 
and  that  all  their  essential  truths  or  apparent  truths  should  be 
sifted  out  and  brought  more  clearly  into  view.  I  have  had  this 
end  in  view  while  preparing  this  communication  for  you. 

I  cannot  perhaps  hope  to  gain  the  unanimous  consent  of  the 
Board  to  all  the  propositions  I  may  feel  justified  in  laying  down 
after  a  fair  consideration  of  the  various  letters.  But  I  trust  you 
will  beHeve  that  I  have  endeavored  to  get  at  the  exact  truth. 

In  commencing  the  correspondence  as  your  representative  I 
had  no  other  object  in  view  than  to  get  the  opinions  of  able  corre- 
spondents, most  of  them  either  American  ambassadors  to  different 
courts  or  consuls  from  the  American  government  stationed  in  all 
the  various  important  countries  of  the  world  to  which  our  com- 
merce extends.  My  questions  embraced  two  main  ideas.  They 
were  put  briefly,  because  I  believed  that  if  I  asked  a  few  questions 
containing  seminal  principles,  I  should  get  ampler  responses  than 
if  I  should  ask  a  greater  number,  which  would  necessarily  require 
a  longer  time  and  perhaps  much  study  to  answer  correctly. 


INTEMPERANCE  13 

The  two  ideas  were,  First  —  to  learn  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  stimulants  used  (if  any  were  so  used)  by  the  inhabitants  of 
countries  to  which  said  correspondents  were  accredited,  and  the 
influence  of  such  indulgence  on  the  health  and  prosperity  of  the 
people. 

Second  —  the  relative  amount  of  intoxication  in  said  countries 
compared  with  that  known  by  such  correspondents  to  exist  in  the 
United  States. 

The  papers  were  sent  to  thirty-three  resident  American  ambas- 
sadors and  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  consuls  and  a  few  other 
non-official  personages  and  friends  whose  opinions  I  knew  would 
be  of  great  value  if  obtained. 

Among  these  correspondents  are  many  of  our  most  distin- 
guished citizens,  some  of  whom  are  well  known  for  their  eminent 
intellectual  and  moral  qualities.  Usually  they  have  resided  for 
some  years  in  the  places  from  which  they  write,  and  are  of  course 
generally  well  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  the  people,  not  only 
of  the  cities  from  which  they  reply,  but  also  with  those  of  the 
people  of  the  districts  or  countries  in  which  these  cities  are  situ- 
ated. Most  of  them  write  as  if  they  knew  well  the  habits  of  the 
people,  and  also  those  of  our  own  nation  in  reference  to  the  use 
and  abuse  of  stimulating  drink.  Hence  their  opinions  on  that 
subject  are  of  great  value. 

Summary  of  the  Principal  Subjects  Considered  in 
THIS  Letter 

1.  Stimulants  are  used  everywhere,  and,  at  times,  abused  by 
savage  and  by  civilized  man.  Consequently,  intoxication  occurs 
all  over  the  globe. 

2.  This  love  of  stimulants  is  one  of  the  strongest  of  himian  in- 
stincts. It  cannot  be  annihilated,  but  may  be  regulated  by  rea- 
son, by  conscience,  by  education,  or  by  law  when  it  encroaches  on 
the  rights  of  others. 

3.  CHmatic  law  governs  it.  The  tendency  to  indulge  to  intoxi- 
cation being  not  only  greater  as  we  go  from  the  heat  of  the  equator 
towards  the  north,  but  the  character  of  that  intoxication  becomes 
more  violent. 


14  STATE  SANITATION 

4.  Owing  to  this  cosmic  law,  intemperance  is  very  rare  near  the 
equator.  It  is  there  a  social  crime,  and  a  disgrace  of  the  deepest 
dye.  Licentiousness  and  gambling  are  small  offences  compared 
with  it.  To  caU  a  man  a  drunkard  is  the  highest  of  insults.  On 
the  contrary,  at  the  north  of  50°  it  is  very  frequent,  is  less  of  a  dis- 
grace, is  by  no  means  a  social  crime. 

5.  Intemperance  causes  little  or  no  crime  toward  the  equator. 
It  is  the  almost  constant  cause  of  crime  either  directly  or  in- 
directly at  the  north  above  50°. 

6.  Intemperance  is  modified  by  race,  as  shown  in  the  different 
tendencies  to  intoxication  of  different  peoples. 

7.  Races  are  modified  physically  and  morally  by  the  kind  of 
liquor  they  use,  as  proved  by  examination  of  the  returns  from 
Austria  and  Switzerland. 

8.  Beer,  native  light  grape  wines  and  ardent  spirits  should  not 
be  classed  together,  for  they  produce  very  different  effects  on  the 
individual  and  upon  the  race. 

9.  Light  German  beer  and  ale  can  be  used  even  freely  without 
any  very  apparent  injury  to  the  individual,  or  without  causing 
intoxication.  They  contain  very  small  percentages  of  alcohol 
(4  or  4.5  to  6.50  per  cent).  Light  grape  wines,  unfortified  by  an 
extra  amount  of  alcohol,  can  be  drunk  less  freely  but  without 
apparent  injury  to  the  race,  and  with  exhilaration  rather  than 
drunkenness.  Some  writers  think  they  do  no  harm  but  a  real 
good  if  used  moderately.  They  never  produce  the  violent  crazy 
drunkenness,  so  noticeable  from  the  use  of  the  ardent  spirits  of  the 
North. 

Ardent  spirits,  on  the  contrary,  unless  used  very  moderately, 
and  with  great  temperance,  and  with  the  determination  to  omit 
them  as  soon  as  the  occasion  has  passed  for  their  use,  are  almost 
always  injurious,  if  continued  even  moderately  for  any  length  of 
time,  for  they  gradually  encroach  on  the  vital  powers.  If  used 
immoderately,  they  cause  a  beastly  narcotism  which  makes  the 
victim  regardless  of  all  the  amenities  and  even  the  decencies  of 
life,  or  perhaps  they  render  him  furiously  crazy,  so  that  he  may 
murder  his  best  friend.  While  those  who  live  in  the  tropics  merely 
sip  slowly  ardent  spirits  from  the  tiniest  of  glasses,  with  the 


INTEMPERANCE  15 

slightest  appreciable  effect,  the  denizen  of  the  frozen  North 
swallows  half  tumblers  full  of  the  same  to  the  speedy  production 
of  intoxication. 

10.  Races  may  be  educated  to  evil  by  bad  laws,  or  by  the  intro- 
duction of  bad  habits.  England's  taste  for  strong  drinks  has  been 
fostered  by  legislation,  and  by  wars  of  nearly  two  centuries  since. 
France  and  parts  of  Switzerland  are  beginning  to  suffer  from  the 
introduction  of  absinthe  and  of  schnapps.  Especially  is  this 
noticeable  since  the  late  Franco-Prussian  war.  By  classifying  all 
liquors  as  equally  injurious,  and  by  endeavoring  to  further  that 
idea  in  the  community,  are  we  not  doing  a  real  injury  to  the  coun- 
try by  preventing  a  freer  use  of  a  mild  lager  beer,  or  of  native 
grape  wine  instead  of  the  ardent  spirits  to  which  our  people  are 
now  so  addicted  ? 

11.  A  race,  when  it  emigrates,  carries  its  habits  with  it,  and,  for 
a  time  at  least,  those  habits  may  override  all  climatic  law. 

12.  England  has  thus  overshadowed  our  whole  country  with 
its  love  of  strong  drinks,  and  with  its  habits  of  intoxication,  as  it 
has  more  recently  covered  Ceylon,  parts  of  the  East,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

13.  This  influence  on  our  own  country  is  greater  now  than  it 
would  have  been  if  our  forefathers,  the  early  settlers,  had  culti- 
vated the  vine,  which  would  have  been  practicable,  as  seen  by  the 
recent  examples  of  Ohio  and  California,  and  from  the  fact  that 
the  whole  of  the  United  States  lies  in  the  region  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face suited  to  the  grape  culture. 

14.  If  these  early  settlers  had  done  this,  our  nation  would  prob- 
ably have  been  more  temperate,  and  a  vast  industry  like  that  of 
France,  of  Spain  and  of  Italy  and  Germany,  in  light  native 
wines,  would  long  ago  have  sprung  up. 

15.  The  example  set  by  California  and  Ohio  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  whole  country,  where  the  vine  can  be  grown.  As  a 
temperance  measure  it  behooves  every  good  citizen  to  promote 
that  most  desirable  object.  We  should  also  allow  the  light,  un- 
fortified wines  of  Europe  to  be  introduced  free  of  duty  instead  of 
the  large  one  now  imposed.  Instead  of  refusing  the  German  lager 
beer,  we  should  seek  to  have  it  introduced  into  the  present  "  grog 


i6  STATE  SANITATION 

shops,"  and  thus  substitute  a  comparatively  innoxious  article  for 
those  potent  liquors,  which  now  bring  disaster  and  death  into  so 
many  families. 

i6.  "  Holly  Tree  "  branches  for  the  sale  of  good  food,  tea  and 
coffee  chiefly  to  the  people,  should,  by  the  benevolent  co-operation 
of  the  community,  be  made  to  take  the  places  of  the  numerous 
grog  shops  now  open  for  the  sale  of  ardent  spirits. 

17.  The  moral  sense  of  the  community  should  be  so  aroused  to 
the  enormity  of  the  evils  flowing  from  keeping  an  open  bar  for  the 
sale  of  ardent  spirits,  while  those  for  the  sale  of  Hght  wines  and  of 
lager  beer  should  not  be  opposed,  except  for  the  sale  to  habitual 
drunkards,  after  due  notice  from  friends.  Sellers  violating  such 
law  might  be  compelled  to  support  for  a  time  the  family  of  their 
victim. 

18.  The  horrid  nature  of  drunkenness  should  be  impressed  by 
every  means  in  our  power  upon  the  moral  sense  of  the  people. 
The  habitual  drunkard  should  be  punished,  or  if  he  be  a  dipso- 
maniac, he  should  be  placed  in  an  inebriate  asylum  for  medical 
and  moral  treatment,  until  he  has  gained  sufficient  self-respect  to 
enable  him  to  overcome  his  love  of  drink.  These  asylums  should 
be  estabHshed  by  the  state. 

19.  The  appendix  contains  various  letters  on  intemperance  in 
this  and  other  countries,  on  reciprocity  treaties  for  introduction 
of  European  wines,  etc. 

In  the  sincere  belief,  gentlemen,  that  this  analysis  of  our  corre- 
spondence will,  eventually  at  least,  tend  to  help  onward  the  most 
excellent  cause  of  temperance  everywhere,  and  in  the  hope  that 
none  will  be  offended  at  the  expression,  at  times,  of  my  own  in- 
dividual opinions,  which  in  the  course  of  the  discussion  I  have 
deemed  it  my  right  and  duty  to  give,  I  remain, 

Your  colleague  and  friend, 

Henry  I.  Bowditch. 


IV 

PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  AND  THE  PHYSICIAN  OF 
THE  FUTURE 

By  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch 

[Reprinted  from  the  Fifth  Annual  Report,  1874,  pp.  31-38  and  59-60.  This 
article,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  his  colleagues,  was  written  after  being  chairman 
of  the  Board  for  five  years.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

In  my  earliest  communication  with  you  I  endeavored  to  express 
in  a  few  words  some  general  views  of  the  great  and  benign  objects 
presented  before  us,  and  the  correlative  public  duties  that  de- 
volved upon  us,  by  our  appointment  as  members  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health.  I  wished  then  to  give  my  highest  ideal  of  those 
objects  and  duties,  and  I  then  expressed  my  belief  that  we  should 
not  fail  of  doing  some  service  to  the  people  of  Massachusetts  if, 
with  simpHcity  of  purpose  and  single-hearted  devotion  to  that 
purpose,  we  should  pursue,  slowly,  perhaps,  but  steadily,  the  path 
opening  before  us. 

It  is  not  my  intention  now  to  review  what  we  have  already 
done.  I  may,  however,  be  allowed  to  say  that  the  annual  liber- 
ality of  the  Legislature  in  regard  to  our  reports,  and  the  fact  that 
the  example  of  Massachusetts  has  been  followed  by  several  states 
of  this  Union,  who  have  established  similar  boards,  is  certainly 
gratifying.  It  would  seem  that  our  example  has  stimulated  others 
to  a  like  course  of  action  in  regard  to  Preventive  or  State  Medi- 
cine, as  it  has  been  sometimes  called,  because  the  improvement  of 
the  public  health  and  the  prevention  of  disease  among  the  people 
is  the  object  of  both.  This  object  has  now  occupied  us  for  five 
years,  and  we  can,  perhaps,  see  more  clearly  its  tendency  and 
noble  scope.  We  can  also,  perhaps,  prophesy  more  decidedly 
than  before  the  beneficial  results  that  will  accrue  to  mankind 
when  the  world  enters  heartily  into  its  objects,  and  when  similar 
boards  have  been  formed,  and  have  worked  for  many  years  in 
every  civilized  community. 


1 8  STATE  SANITATION 

Preventive  or  State  Medicine  is  of  recent  origin.  It  has  been 
the  natural  outgrowth  of  modern  thought  and  resources,  stimu- 
lated by  centuries  of  suffering  and  by  the  sacrifice  of  multitudes 
of  human  beings.  Modern  thought,  later  and  more  scientific 
methods  of  investigation,  and  more  rapid  means  of  communica- 
tion of  thought  and  of  action  have  given  this  idea  to  the  nations. 
It  is  true  that  Hygiene,  or  the  science  which  would  promote 
human  health,  has  been  discussed  from  earHest  times,  but  com- 
monly as  applied  to  the  individual  man.  The  scientific  study  of 
the  laws  of  disease  as  they  affect  large  masses  of  men,  and  the 
voluntary  efforts  of  great  states  to  study  those  laws  by  means  of 
boards  of  health,  or  of  experts  set  apart  for  this  special  purpose, 
are  strictly  of  modern  origin.  Hippocrates,  wise  as  he  was,  could 
not,  with  the  imperfect  means  of  communication  in  his  day,  have 
inaugurated  it.  Moreover,  in  the  earher  states,  man  as  an  indi- 
vidual never  stood,  in  the  estimation  of  his  fellows,  nor  of  the 
government,  so  high  as  he  does  at  the  present  day  under  European 
or  American  civilization.  Formerly  his  welfare  was  subordinated 
to  that  of  the  state.  Now,  the  theory  is  exactly  the  reverse,  and 
the  state  claims  to  have  the  tenderest  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
each  and  every  one,  the  humblest  or  richest  of  its  citizens. 
Formerly,  all  persons  believed,  as  many  now  beHeve,  that  prayer 
should  be  offered  to  the  offended  gods  in  order  to  stop  plagues, 
famine  and  death.  But  now,  most  persons  feel  that,  although 
prayer  may  avail  much  to  enable  an  individual  or  a  state  to  bear 
calmly  some  terrible  calamity  or  to  die  bravely,  if  need  be,  in  a 
great  cause,  it  can  never  drive  away  fever,  cholera,  nor  smallpox. 
It  can  never  cure  consumption,  though  it  may  help  both  sufferer 
and  friends  to  bear  it  more  patiently.  To  submit  quietly  to  any 
remediable  evil,  as  if  to  the  will  of  Providence,  is  not  now  con- 
sidered an  act  of  piety,  but  an  unmanly  and  really  irreligious  act. 
It  is  the  part  of  error  and  stupidity  which  does  not  believe  in  the 
duty  of  studying  into  the  physical  causes  of  disease,  and  in  at 
least  endeavoring  to  crush  out  these  originators  of  pestilence  and 
of  death. 

Modern  Preventive  Medicine  has  been  hinted  at  by  Nature 
from  the  earHest  time.    Occasionally  she  has  shown  us  how  she 


PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  19 

can  summarily  strangle  disease,  and  drive  it  forever  from  its  usual 
haunts.  The  great  fire  in  London,  in  1666,  burned  up  the  greater 
part  of  that  metropolis.  With  its  great  sorrows,  trials  and  losses, 
it  brought  one  of  London's  greatest  blessings,  viz. :  the  extirpa- 
tion of  the  plague  which  had  previously  so  often  ravaged  the 
inhabitants.^ 

Intermittent  fever  has  ceased  in  certain  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  of  this  country  under  the  influence  of  tillage  and  drainage  of 
the  soil.  Till  inoculation  was  brought  from  the  East  and  taught 
to  modern  Europe,  the  physician  could  not  mitigate  smallpox. 

Jenner,  led  by  Nature's  teachings,  substituted  the  milder 
disease  of  vaccination  for  the  fatal  scourge  of  smallpox. 

Private  investigations  in  Europe  and  Amedca  have,  in  these 
later  days,  proved  that  residence  on  a  damp  soil  brings  con- 
sumption; and,  second,  that  drainage  of  wet  soil  of  towns  tends 
to  lessen  the  ravages  of  that  disease. 

We  have  been  taught  by  Murchison  and  others  that  fevers  are 
often  propagated  by  contaminated  drinking-water  or  milk.  Our 
own  Board  investigations  have  proved  that  contaminated  air  may 
also  cause  it. 

Still  more  recently  cholera  has  been  brought,  in  its  origin  and 
progress,  under  law,  and  we  know  how  we  could  probably  prevent 
it  if  proper  precautions  against  its  origin  were  taken.  A  neglect 
of  proper  sanitary  regulations  tends  to  propagate  this  scourge, 
year  after  year,  over  Europe. 

These  monitions  given  by  Nature  and  individuals,  as  to  our 
power  of  checking  or  preventing  disease,  have  at  last  culminated 
in  the  fact  that  the  state  decides  to  use  its  moral  power  and 
material  resources  in  aid  of  State  or  Preventive  Medicine. 
England,  in  this  respect,  outranks  all  other  countries.  America, 
I  think,  stands  next. 

This  appears  to  me  the  general  course  of  events  hitherto  in 
regard  to  public  health.  I  do  not  mean  to  assert,  however,  that 
nothing  has  ever  been  done  before  by  the  state.  On  the  contrary, 
the  ParHament  of  Great  Britain  and  other  European  states  and 
the  legislatures  of  our  various  states  have  at  times  spasmodically 
^  68,596  died  of  it  in  London,  1664-65. 


20  STATE  SANITATION 

and  tentatively,  for  centuries  past,  given  powers  to  local  town 
boards  of  health.  They  have,  moreover,  at  times,  devised  im- 
portant plans  for  the  health  of  the  people  and  for  the  prevention 
of  the  spread  of  certain  diseases.  But  all  these  were  trivial  com- 
pared with  the  present  position  of  England  and  of  some  states  of 
this  Union  where  state  boards  of  health  have  been  established. 

Again,  physicians  have  heretofore  devoted  themselves  chiefly 
not  to  the  prevention,  but  to  the  "  cure  "  of  disease.  How  utterly 
impotent  have  commonly  been  their  efforts  to  cope  with  great 
epidemics!  The  giving  of  medicine  during  a  disease,  not  the  pre- 
vention of  it,  has  been  their  chief  aim,  and  the  community  now 
generally  believes  that  the  physician  is  simply  an  administrator 
of  drugs.  How  rarely  is  a  physician  called  upon  to  mark  out  the 
course  a  man  should  pursue  to  prevent  their  use !  Nevertheless, 
modern  times  will  bear  ample  witness  to  the  zeal  with  which  some 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  our  number  have  protested  against 
the  too  free  use  of  medicine,  and  have  declared  that  our  art  must 
be  pursued  more  in  accordance  with  Nature's  laws,  and  not  in 
total  neglect  of  them,  as  was  too  frequently  the  case  in  former 
days.  Some  few  even,  though  I  would  protest  against  it,  have 
carried  their  skepticism  so  far  as  to  lead  one  to  believe  that  they 
think  the  practice  of  Physic  hitherto  has  been  an  unmitigated 
evil. 

With  one  accord  I  beheve  it  may  be  said  that  the  whole  pro- 
fession has  cordially  greeted  the  advent  of  State  or  Preventive 
Medicine.  What,  it  may  now  be  asked,  will  be  the  effect  upon  the 
public  and  the  profession  after  two  or  three  centuries  of  growth  of 
the  principles  of  Preventive  Medicine  ?  I  look  forward  with  high 
hopes  for  the  future  of  this  young  idea,  founded  as  it  is  on  the 
duty  of  the  state  to  investigate  the  laws  of  all  diseases  so  that,  as 
far  as  possible,  all  shall  hereafter  be  prevented.  I  think  that  idea 
cannot  fail  of  making  a  stalwart  growth.  It  may  make  many 
errors,  but  it  must  make  yearly  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
more  hidden  causes  of  disease.  At  least  three  good  results  will 
arise  from  it:  — 

I.  The  profession  will  learn  that  a  system  of  therapeutics, 
dependent  on  materia  medica  simply,  is  much  less  valuable 


PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  21 

than  that  which  seeks  to  defend  its  patients  from  the  insidious 
approaches  of  the  causes  of  disease. 

2.  The  people  will  themselves  learn  to  avoid  many  evils  into 
which  they  now  fall,  because  of  their  ignorance  of  the  laws  of 
health.  They  will  have  less  faith  in  drugs,  more  in  nature;  more 
in  anticipating  and  preventing  evil  than  in  curing  it  after  it  has 
begun. 

3.  The  knowledge  of  the  precise  effects  of  special  drugs,  and  of 
their  various  compounds  one  with  another,  will  become  more  and 
more  accurate  under  the  teaching  of  modern  experimental  physi- 
ology, and  still  more  under  chnical  experience.  Though  it  may 
take  centuries  to  develop,  even  to  a  small  extent,  the  future 
materia  medica,  the  future  physician  will  use  each  article  with  a 
finer  knowledge  of  the  precise  effects  of  each  drug  and  of  its  com- 
binations, than  it  is  possible  for  us  now  to  have.  We  can  scarcely 
foresee  the  time  that  will  be  required  for  this  materia  medica  to 
become  even  tolerably  perfect.  In  fact,  the  knowledge  of  the 
special  action  of  drugs  at  the  present  day,  compared  with  what 
we  have  yet  to  learn  upon  this  important  subject,  is  a  mere  trifle. 

Meanwhile,  as  the  profession  of  medicine  becomes  more 
thoroughly  scientific,  the  people  will  also  gradually  learn  that  all 
filth,  physical,  moral  or  intellectual,  is  absolute  poison;  that  no 
violation  of  physical,  moral  or  intellectual  law  can  be  made,  even 
momentarily,  without  injury  to  human  comfort  and  Hfe,  and 
possibly  without  causing  premature  death.  It  will  learn  that  it  is 
not  only  worse  than  useless,  but  a  vile  wrong  to  one's  self,  to  use 
various  articles  as  incautiously  as  they  are  generally  now  used. 

But  it  may  be  asked.  What  is  to  become  of  the  physician  and 
his  practice,  when  the  public  takes  care  of  its  own  health  more 
than  it  does  at  present  ?  Will  the  profession  be  useless  ?  Far 
from  it.  It  will  stand  higher  than  ever.  It  will  be  the  prophet  of 
the  future,  and  will  direct  men  how  to  govern  their  own  bodies  in 
order  to  get  the  full  amount  of  work  and  of  joy  that  is  possible 
out  of  each  body  that  appears  in  life.  I  feel  sure  that  more  than 
at  the  present  day  will  the  wise  adviser  and  practitioner  of 
medicine  be  then  needed,  whenever  misfortune  or  wilfulness  or 
carelessness,  folly  or  crime,  shall  have  brought  disease  and  per- 


22  STATE  SANITATION 

haps  a  tendency  to  early  death  into  a  family.  It  will  be  the  phy- 
sician's duty  to  show  the  way  out  of  such  impending  evil.  He 
will  take  the  child  at  its  birth,  and  will  cast  its  horoscope  from  the 
past  and  present  of  its  family  tendencies,  and  its  actual  surround- 
ings. Having  well  considered  these  data  he  will  lay  down  the 
rules  of  life  which  should  rigidly  be  pursued  by  parents  and  by 
himself  in  order  to  gain  possession  of  as  much  of  perfect  health  as 
he  is  capable  of  having.  As  the  dentist  now  undertakes  to  modify 
and  to  guide  the  various  processes  of  dentition  from  earliest  child- 
hood to  old  age,  so  the  physician  will  be  the  monitor  and  guide  for 
the  entire  body  from  birth  to  death.  The  dentist  is,  philosophi- 
cally speaking,  in  advance  of  the  physician  of  the  present  day, 
inasmuch  as  in  his  own  specialty  he  of  tener  acts  on  the  principle 
of  Preventive  Medicine.  It  m^ust  be  admitted,  moreover,  that 
however  wise  a  prophet  the  physician  may  be,  and  however 
skilled  in  hygienic  law  the  people  may  become,  there  will  always 
be  a  very  wide  margin  of  ignorance,  folly  and  of  adverse  cir- 
cumstances on  the  part  of  the  public,  which  must  be  met,  and,  if 
possible,  remedied  by  the  professors  of  our  art. 

To  be  able  to  aid  in  inaugurating  such  a  future  state  of  pro- 
fessional and  lay  knowledge  is  surely  an  object  worthy  of  our 
highest  effort.  It  is  satisfactory  to  me,  and  I  hope  also  to  you, 
to  think  that  we  are  allowed  to  advocate  this  noble  cause  in 
Massachusetts.  It  is  my  hope  that  by  the  efforts  of  the  Board 
the  state  will  annually  become  more  aHve  to  its  best  interests, 
and  to  its  duties  towards  the  people.  Hygienic  laws  will  be 
enacted  and  they  will  be  obeyed  by  the  many,  if  from  no  other 
motive,  from  self-interest.  May  we  not  hope  that  our  country 
homes  will  be  more  carefully  guarded  from  the  many  causes  of 
disease  that  now,  through  ignorance  beset  them.  I  trust  that 
in  our  cities  large  tenements  for  the  poor,  in  which  there  are 
common  corridors  and  water-closets  or  privies  for  two  or  three 
hundred  people,  in  which  the  comforts  of  home  and  all  the 
amenities  of  human  Kfe  are  set  at  naught,  in  which  it  is  impossible 
to  educate  a  family  in  decency,  and  where  disease  and  crime  pre- 
vail, will  be  declared  public  nuisances  and  pest-houses.  I  look 
forward  to  the  time  when  a  city  government  will  be  considered 


PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  23 

criminal  which,  like  the  city  of  Boston,  allows,  year  after  year, 
sewers  to  be  introduced  as  unwisely  as  they  are  at  present,  and 
its  sewage  to  be  thrown  broadcast  about  its  borders,  thereby  at 
times  overwhelming  its  inhabitants  with  a  tainted  atmosphere. 
The  same  government  will,  I  trust,  feel  the  importance  of  having 
proper  administration  of  the  laws  about  drunkenness,  guard- 
ing itself  alike  against  the  futile  waste  of  time  of  attempting  to 
enforce  a  general  prohibition,  or  the  allowing,  as  at  present,  of 
unbridled  license  in  the  sale  of  liquor.  When  Preventive  Medi- 
cine has  full  sway,  men  will  not  be  allowed  day  after  day  to 
disturb  the  pubKc  peace  or  the  comfort  of  their  own  famihes  by 
beastly  drunkenness.  The  authorities  of  that  day  wiU  promptly 
decide  whether  it  be  the  result  of  disease  or  of  crime,  and  will 
seclude  the  wrong-doer  either  in  a  drunkard's  sanitarium  or  a 
prison.  I  feel  sure,  moreover,  that  the  time  will  come  when  the 
selling  of  rum  to  an  avowed  and  well-known  drunkard  will  be 
deemed  one  of  the  most  dreadful  of  crimes,  inasmuch  as  drunken- 
ness strikes  at  the  root  of  the  physical,  moral  and  intellectual 
health  of  the  people.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  blessings  that 
will  arise  when  Preventive  Medicine  shall  have  its  full  sway  over 
our  people,  and  when  individuals  and  laws  shall  have  been 
gradually  moulded  by  it. 

As  an  example,  imperfect  though  it  must  be,  of  what  I  think 
will  be  the  relations  of  physicians  and  the  community  compared 
with  those  which  they  respectively  hold  at  present,  let  me  imagine 
the  following:  Suppose  two  parents  have  hereditary  tendencies 
to  consumption,  and  they  are  desirous  of  knowing  how  best  to 
manage  their  child  that  has  just  been  born.  They  wish  that  it 
may  have  the  best  chance  of  arriving  at  a  good  old  age  after  a  life 
of  health.  Let  us  suppose  that  both  parents  have  this  ancestral 
tendency  to  that  disease  of  the  lungs  which  is  known  as  con- 
sumption. According  to  some  modem  writers,  it  has  many 
antecedents  or  causes,  but  we  shall  probably  know  it  for  centuries 
to  come,  as  it  has  been  known  in  the  past,  as  the  one  disease  of  the 
lungs  that  slays  a  large  percentage  of  all  who  die  in  New  England. 
There  are  certainly  some  general  topics,  even  with  our  present 
knowledge  of  its  antecedents,  which  would  naturally  and  physi- 


24  STATE  SANITATION 

ologically  come  under  discussion  in  replying  to  the  inquiries. 
Among  them  are  some  which  are  generally  applicable  to  all 
human  beings,  whether  in  health  or  disease,  viz.:  residence, 
nutrition,  clothing^  care  of  the  skin,  bathing,  etc.,  recreations, 
education,  profession,  exercise,  walking,  running,  dancing,  horse- 
back exercise,  driving,  gymnastics,  bowling,  rowing,  swimming. 
Let  me  try  to  give  most  briefly  some  general  ideas  on  each  of 
these  topics.^ 

I  have  thus  given  you  my  views  of  the  grand  scope  of  Preven- 
tive Medicine,  and,  as  a  most  imperfect  illustration  of  its  future 
usefulness,  I  have  run  through  a  series  of  recommendations  that 
I  think  any  experienced  physician  might  even  now  give,  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  and  rules  of  action  that  will  weigh  with  the 
physician  of  the  future.  And  I  believe  that  if  these  recommenda- 
tions, with  others  that  might  be  added  by  any  family  physician, 
should  be  thoroughly  carried  out  by  the  parent  during  childhood, 
and  by  the  man  or  woman  when  arrived  at  adult  life,  many  that 
will  die  of  consumption  would  escape  that  calamity. 

In  saying  this  I  do  not  mean  to  intimate  that  during  the  whole 
period  no  other  remedies,  strictly  so  called,  might  not  be  neces- 
sary. Doubtless  they  would  be;  and  of  the  exact  mode  of  appli- 
cation of  those  remedies  physiological  experiment  and  clinical 
experience  of  physicians  are  teaching  us  more  and  more  every  day. 
I  contend,  therefore,  that  the  physician  of  the  future  will  stand 
higher  than  ever,  as  Preventive  Medicine  advances.  In  this 
statement  I  take  a  position  exactly  the  reverse  of  that  assumed 
by  President  Barnard  in  his  late  address  before  the  Health  Asso- 
ciation at  its  recent  meeting  in  New  York.  That  gentleman 
quietly  informed  his  medical  hearers  that  their  doom  was  sealed 
under  the  steady  advance  of  modern  science.  Their  services 
would  become  less  and  less  necessary,  and  would  finally  be  no 
longer  needed  by  the  laity.  I  think  he  is  wrong  and  that  my 
views  are  correct,  because,  while  human  free  agency  and  human 
imperfection  exist,  while  accidents,  moral  and  physical,  occur, 
there  wiU  always  be  some  occurrences  tending  to  injure  health 
which  no  skiU  in  prophecy  can  foresee.    The  wise  physician  will 

^  Discussion  of  these  topics  is  omitted  from  this  abstract. 


PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  25 

therefore  be  summoned  to  act  immediately  on  important  cases  of 
disease  or  threatened  death.  These  he  will  meet  not  only  by  wise 
preventive  regulations  for  the  future  health  of  his  patient,  but 
likewise  by  a  careful  administration  of  medicine,  properly  so 
called,  during  the  actual  attack. 

Henry  I.  Bowditch. 


THE  FILTRATION  OF  POTABLE  WATER 

By  Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols 

I^At  the  time  when  this  paper  was  written  the  filtration  of  water  was  practiced  but 
little  in  the  United  States,  although  filters  had  been  in  use  in  London  for  over  twenty 
years.  Professor  Nichols  discussed  the  subject  in  a  scholarly  and  scientific  manner 
and  those  familiar  with  the  subject  will  appreciate  his  keen  powers  of  observation. 
He  did  not  then  have  a  knowledge  of  bacteria  and  the  germ  theory  of  disease  and 
this  accounts  for  his  view  that  filtration  will  not  purify  polluted  water.  Reprinted 
from  the  Ninth  Annual  Report,  1878,  p.  139.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

Prominent  among  the  requirements  of  various  commissions, 
which  have  been  busied  in  different  places  with  the  matter  of 
water-supply,  is  the  statement  which  needs  no  commission  to 
estabhsh;  namely,  that  a  good  drinking-water  should  be  free 
from  all  suspended  matter,  and  as  far  as  possible  free  from  color. 

Comparatively  few  towns  can  congratulate  themselves  on 
having  in  their  possession,  or  even  within  their  reach,  a  supply  of 
water  which  shall  correspond  in  all  points  to  the  ideal  drinking- 
water.  Often  the  question  must  be  decided  between  an  extrav- 
agant expenditure  of  money,  and  a  water  which  is  of  inferior 
quahty  although  not  actually  unwholesome.  In  theory,  financial 
considerations  stand  behind  sanitary  considerations;  yet  in 
practice  there  is  always  a  limit  which  cannot  reasonably  be 
exceeded. 

It  is  not  proposed  at  this  time  to  enter  into  any  discussion  as  to 
what  may  be,  theoretically,  the  best  source  from  which  the  supply 
of  water  for  town  or  city  use  should  if  possible  be  taken :  in  actual 
practice  it  is  often  found  necessary  to  choose  as  a  source  of  supply 
a  river  or  pond,  which,  although  it  may  not  have  become  unfit  for 
use  by  reason  of  pollution,  is  of  inferior  quality  owing  to  the 
presence  of  suspended  particles  of  vegetable  or  mineral  matter, 
or  to  excessive  hardness,  or  to  coloring  matter  of  vegetable  origin 
in  solution.    In  such  cases  it  is  possible  to  improve  the  quality  of 

26 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  27 

water  which  in  its  natural  condition  is  not  well  suited  for  use.  It 
may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  principle  in  sanitary  science,  that 
a  water  which  is  polluted  by  admixture  of  substances  known  or 
generally  suspected  to  be  injurious,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  require 
actual  purification,  should  be  rejected  at  once  as  a  source  of 
domestic  supply;  but  a  water  too  hard  for  use  may  be  softened  by 
Clark's  process,  which  is  applicable  on  the  large  scale;  ^  and  a 
water  containing  matter  in  suspension  may  be  clarified  by  some 
process  of  filtration,  to  be  preceded  as  a  rule,  in  the  case  of  run- 
ning streams,  by  subsidence.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present 
paper  to  consider,  in  the  light  of  American  and  foreign  experience, 
artificial  filtration  on  the  large  scale,  especially  with  reference  to 
the  conditions  which  obtain  in  our  own  state;  and,  on  account  of 
its  intimate  connection  with  the  same  subject,  we  shall  also  con- 
sider the  so-called  natural  filtration  method  of  water-supply,  and 
the  filtration  of  water  in  the  household. 

Before  beginning  upon  the  subject  proper,  attention  is  called 
to  certain  definitions,  which  to  some  will  seem,  no  doubt,  very 
elementary.  There  is,  however,  a  great  deal  of  confusion  in  the 
minds  of  even  well-educated  people,  as  to  the  use  of  the  terms  in 
solution,  and  in  suspension,  as  referred  to  waters;  a  great  deal  of 
confusion,  also,  with  reference  to  the  distinction  between  clear 
and  colorless,  ideas  which  are  by  no  means  synonymous.  The 
accurate  use  of  the  terms  can  probably  best  be  made  plain  by 
illustrations.  If,  for  instance,  we  put  some  common  salt  into  a 
quantity  of  water,  after  a  time  the  salt  disappears,  the  ultimate 
particles  being  distributed  through  the  water  so  that  they  are  no 

^  The  so-called  hardness  of  water  is  due  in  the  main  to  the  presence  of  compounds 
of  lime  and  magnesia  in  solution.  These  compounds  are  generally  the  sulphates 
and  bicarbonates.  When  the  hardness  is  due  to  the  bicarbonates  of  Hme  and  mag- 
nesia, the  water  becomes  softer  on  boiling,  because  the  bicarbonates  are  decomposed 
into  carbonic-acid  gas,  which  escapes,  and  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  of  magnesia, 
which  are  insoluble  in  water.  Practically  the  same  effect  as  that  produced  by  boil- 
ing may  be  brought  about  by  the  addition  of  a  proper  amoimt  of  milk  of  lime.  The 
lime  unites  with  the  bicarbonates  to  form  simple  carbonates,  which  are  deposited 
as  a  white  powder,  incidentally  removing  at  the  same  time  most  of  the  suspended 
matter  which  the  water  originally  contained,  and  often  removing  more  or  less  color- 
ing matter.  There  is  no  serious  difficulty  in  applying  this  process  on  a  very  large 
scale. 


28  STATE  SANITATION 

longer  distinguishable  by  the  eye,  even  aided  by  the  most  power- 
ful microscope:  the  salt  cannot  be  removed  by  simple  filtration; 
and,  although  the  solution  is  somewhat  less  mobile  than  water, 
it  is  still  transparent.  This  is  a  case  of  solution.  Suppose  instead 
of  the  salt  we  take  a  quantity  of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper) . 
The  phenomena  would  be  similar,  but  the  blue  color  of  the  com- 
pound would  show  itself  in  the  solution.  If  the  solution  were 
saturated,  i.  e.,  if  the  water  had  dissolved  as  much  as  it  could,  the 
transparency  of  the  Hquid  would  be  diminished  on  account  of  the 
depth  of  color;  it  would  be  easy,  however,  to  take  a  very  thick 
layer  of  the  solution,  and  satisfy  one's  self  of  its  transparence. 
Such  a  hquid  is  colored,  but  is  also  clear. 

Suppose,  now,  we  take  some  clay,  shake  it  with  water,  and  then 
allow  it  to  settle.  The  grosser  particles  will  subside  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  but  the  finer  particles  will  remain  in  suspension. 
Very  finely  divided  clay  will  refuse  to  settle  for  weeks,  and  some- 
times even  for  months.  In  such  cases  the  Hquid  appears  some- 
what turbid  and  opaque;  and  although  the  individual  particles 
are  too  fine  to  be  readily  removed  by  ordinary  filters,  and  too 
small  to  be  distinguished  as  particles  by  the  eye,  still  the  clay  has 
not  dissolved,  and  the  very  turbidity  or  opacity  of  the  liquid 
shows  the  presence  of  soKd  particles,  although  they  are  extremely 
minute.  Such  an  appearance  is  not  to  be  described  as  being 
colored,  although  finely  divided  clay  and  other  material  may  be 
suspended  in  a  liquid  which  does  of  itself  possess  a  distinct  color. 
One  often  meets  with  the  expression,  and  that  too  in  standard 
works,  "  the  water  is  discolored  by  clay,"  when  really  it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  a  colorless  water  carrying  particles  in  suspension.  The 
water  in  many  of  our  New  England  streams  is  at  seasons  highly 
colored  by  vegetable  extractive  matter  in  solution,  while  the 
water  may  at  the  same  time  be  perfectly  clear  and  transparent. 
On  the  other  hand,  our  pond  waters  are  often  decidedly  green; 
but  simple  filtration  gives  a  colorless  water,  and  shows  the  green 
color  to  have  been  due  to  particles  of  green  (vegetable)  matter 
which  were  suspended  in  the  liquid. 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  29 

Artificial  Filtration  on  the  Large  Scale 

The  filtration  of  water  on  the  large  scale  has  been  practiced  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  for  many  years,  and 
has  become  very  general  in  cases  where  the  supply  is  taken  from 
streams  or  ponds.  From  statistics  which  were  laid  before  the 
Diisseldorf  meeting  of  the  German  PubKc  Health  Association,  in 
1876,  by  Engineer  Grahn,  it  would  seem  that  in  Germany  since 
1858  there  has  been  no  town  of  considerable  size  supplied  with 
unfiltered  river  water,  while  the  increase  with  reference  to  other 
sources  of  supply  may  be  seen  from  the  following  data :  — 

Table  i 

Total  N^JMBER  of  Inhabitants  in  Eighty  Towns  of  Germany,  German- 
Austria,  AND  Switzerland 

Supplied  With  i8s8  1876 

Unfiltered  river  water 460,000  460,000 

Filtered  river  water 1,060,000  1,697,000 

Spring  and  ground  water  (by  gravitation) 25,000  1,519,000 

Spring  and  ground  water  (by  pumping) 45,ooo  1,719,000 

In  the  United  States  the  practice  of  the  filtration  of  water  on 
the  large  scale  is  but  just  beginning  to  come  into  use.  In  the 
year  1866,  James  P.  Kirkwood,  C.E.,  went  to  Europe  in  the 
interests  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis  to  study  the  clarification  of  river 
waters  used  for  the  supply  of  cities;  and  his  elaborate  report  ^ 
on  the  subject  of  filtration  in  general  is  almost  the  only  book  on 
the  subject  which  is  at  all  comprehensive.  Full  details  of  Euro- 
pean practice  are  there  given,  as  well  as  plans  and  suggestions  for 
filtering-beds  for  St.  Louis.  St.  Louis  has  not  yet  adopted  any 
system  of  filtration,  but  several  other  cities  of  smaller  size  have 
done  so  with  more  or  less  success:  namely,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
in  1871;  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1874;  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1874; 
Toledo,  Ohio,  in  1875.  The  necessity  of  filtration  is,  however, 
in  many  places  felt,  and  would  no  doubt  have  been  long  since 
undertaken  were  it  not  for  the  additional  outlay  required  for 
subsiding-basins  and  filter-beds,  and  the  expense  of  maintenance. 

1  Kirkwood,  "  Filtration  of  River  Waters."    New  York,  1869. 


30  STATE  SANITATION 

Object  and  Results  oe  Filtration  on  the 
Large  Scale 

Having  considered  the  method  of  filtration  in  common  use  we 
may  now  profitably  inquire  more  closely  into  the  object  which  it 
aims  to  accomplish,  and  the  results  which  are  actually  obtained. 

Although,  as  we  shall  see  later,  something  more  is  incidentally 
accomplished,  filtration  in  its  strict  sense  is  simply  a  mechanical 
operation,  and  consists  in  causing  a  liquid  containing  suspended 
particles  of  soHd  matter  to  pass  through  some  material,  the  pores 
of  which,  although  large  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  Hquids, 
are  still  too  small  for  the  passage  of  the  soHd  particles  suspended 
in  the  Hquid.  The  suspended  matter  which  by  its  presence  in  our 
water-supplies  makes  filtration  desirable  is  somewhat  various  in 
character.  Most  rivers  are  Hable,  particularly  at  times  of  freshet, 
to  carry  a  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  mineral  matters  in  sus- 
pension; this  may  be,  first,  of  such  a  character  as  to  settle  quite 
readily  by  virtue  of  the  comparatively  high  specific  gravity  of  the 
particles,  as  will  be  the  case  of  the  mineral  matter  consisting  of 
sand,  mica,  etc.  Such  material  as  this  is  readily  removed  by 
filtration;  but  it  is  generally  more  economical  to  subject  the  water 
to  a  process  of  sedimentation  first,  and  settHng-basins  are  quite 
universally  regarded  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  successful 
filtration.  It  is  evident  that  without  sedimentation  a  slower  rate 
of  filtration  must  be  employed,  and  the  sand  must  be  cleaned 
more  frequently. 

The  suspended  matter  may  obstinately  refuse  to  settle,  as  is 
the  case  of  rivers  rendered  turbid  by  the  presence  of  clay  in  sus- 
pension; in  which  case  it  is  almost  impossible  as  a  rule  to  filter 
the  water  slowly  enough  to  obtain  good  results  if  the  turbid  water 
without  previous  sedimentation  is  put  directly  upon  the  filter- 
beds.  Even  with  sedimentation  the  result  is  not  always  as  good 
as  might  be  desired.  The  following  table,  taken  from  the  Sixth 
Report  of  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commission^  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  efficiency  of  the  filtration  as  practiced  by  the  various 
London  companies.  The  observations  being  made  on  monthly 
samples,  the  statements  of  the  table  will  perhaps  hardly  give  a 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER 


31 


just  idea  of  the  results  obtained  day  by  day;  but  they  will  serve 
to  indicate  the  fact  that  the  mere  possession  of  filter-beds  does  not 
secure  perfectly  clear  water  at  all  times. 

Table  2 

Thames  and  Lee  Water.    Comparative  Efficiency  of  Different  Rates 
OF  Filtration  during  the  Years  1868  to  1873,  Inclusive 


Maximum 

Rate  of 

Filtration 

Expressed  in 

Inches  Per 

Hour 

Number  of  Monthly  Occasions  When  — 

Name  of  Company 

Clear 

Slightly 
Turbid 

Turbid 

Very 
Turbid 

Thames 
Chelsea 

7.27 
4.71 
6.00 
6.97 
12.00 

S-OO 
3.8s 

49 

75 
41 
55 
42 

70 
51 

15 

24 

14 
II 

4 
18 

5 

5 

7 

12 

3 

6 

West  Middlesex 

Southwark  and  Vauxhall 

Grand  Junction 

4 

Lambeth 

10 

Lee 
New  River 

East  London 

2 

In  speaking  of  suspended  matters  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
allude  to  fish  and  small  animals,  or  to  chips  and  sawdust  and  other 
such  substances,  intentionally  thrown  into  running  streams,  or 
to  leaves  and  other  fragments  of  vegetable  matter  which  have 
fallen  from  the  trees  and  forests  along  their  banks.  Most  of  such 
floating  matter  can  be  arrested  by  suitable  screens,  which  would  be 
without  effect  as  far  as  removing  the  finer  particles  is  concerned. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  turbidity  of  many  streams:  ponds  are 
less  liable  to  be  turbid  from  the  causes  alluded  to,  being,  in  fact, 
settling  reservoirs;  and  in  the  case  of  old  ponds  with  sandy  or 
gravelly  sides  and  bottom  there  is  seldom  anything  to  complain 
of  or  to  necessitate  filtration.  Ponds  are,  however,  particularly 
liable  to  other  sorts  of  suspended  matters :  namely,  to  growths  of 
minute  vegetable  organisms.  This  trouble  concerns  so  intimately 
the  water-supphes  of  this  region,  where  the  water  is  quite  com- 
monly taken  from  natural  or  artificial  ponds,  that  we  may  dwell 
upon  it  somewhat  in  detail. 


32  STATE  SANITATION 

No  natural  water  which  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  light,  whether 
in  pond  or  river,  is  ever  entirely  free  from  vegetable  growth. 

The  non-professional  and  non-botanical  observer  might  very 
Hkely  divide  the  various  plants  found  growing  in  the  water  into 
three  classes :  ist,  and  most  readily  recognized  as  plants,  are  those 
commonly  known  as  eel-grass,  pond-weed,  pickerel- weed,  Hlies, 
etc.,  which  have  roots  and  leaves,  and  also,  at  the  proper  season, 
flowers;  2d,  and  less  readily  recognized  as  plants,  are  the  con- 
fervoid  growths,^  as  they  are  often  called,  of  filamentous  structure, 
grass-green  or  in  some  cases  bluish-green  in  color,  forming  tangled 
masses  readily  removed  from  the  water,  and,  when  so  removed, 
shrinking  enormously  in  apparent  bulk,  and  drying  away  to  a 
grayish  or  colorless  mass,  in  some  cases  looking  almost  like  coarse 
paper.  Plants  of  this  character  grow  in  almost  all  reservoirs,  or 
other  bodies  of  water  exposed  to  the  light  and  air,  both  in  still 
and  running  water;  they  either  float  in  masses  in  the  water,  or 
grow  attached  more  or  less  firmly  to  the  rocks  and  stones  of  the 
bottom  of  the  pond  or  reservoir.  By  their  growth  they  do  no 
harm  to  the  water  in  which  they  flourish;  and  as  they  are  readily 
arrested  by  ordinary  wire  screens,  or  easily  removed  by  rakes  or 
scoop-nets,  their  presence  causes  no  serious  inconvenience  in 
water  used  for  town-supply. 

The  third  division  of  the  non-professional  would  include,  if 
indeed  they  were  recognized  as  plants,  those  minute  organisms 
which  appear  as  greenish  specks,  or  minute  straight  or  curved 
threads,  diffused  through  the  water,  visible  enough  if  a  large 
quantity  of  water  be  looked  at,  but  perhaps  almost  escaping 
notice  in  the  small  quantity  which  would  be  taken  up  in  a  single 
glass.  It  is  true  that  the  individual  plants  are  in  some  cases  dis- 
tinguishable by  the  naked  eye,  but  their  form  and  structure  can 
be  made  out  only  by  use  of  the  microscope.  If  collected  together 
as  a  scum,  which  often  happens,  especially  on  the  windward  shore 
of  a  pond,  the  scum  is  not  coherent,  is  easily  broken  up,  either  by 
a  wind  setting  in  the  opposite  direction,  by  a  shower  of  rain,  or  by 

^  These,  as  well  as  those  mentioned  below,  belong  to  the  class  of  cryptogamous 
(non-flowering)  plants,  which  the  botanists  call  algae,  —  plants  which  grow  in  the 
water,  or  in  moist  places,  and  usually  contain  chlorophyll  (green  coloring  matter), 
or  some  allied  substance.    To  their  number  and  variety  there  is  almost  no  end. 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  33 

artificial  agitation.  The  appearance  has  been  sometimes  de- 
scribed as  that  of  meal  or  of  fine  dust  scattered  through  the  water. 
The  number  of  individuals  is  almost  infinite,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  they  increase  with  great  rapidity.  Their  presence 
gives  a  decidedly  green  or  greenish-yellow  tinge  to  large  bodies 
of  water;  and  their  death  and  decay  often  cause  considerable 
offence  to  the  sense  of  smell  of  those  sojourning  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  to  the  sense  of  taste  of  those  obhged  to  drink  the 
water. 

While  very  many  species  of  the  minute  algae  present  this  gen- 
eral appearance,  as  far  as  my  own  observation  and  information 
extend,  the  number  of  species  which  are  known  to  increase  to  such 
a  great  extent  as  to  completely  fill  the  waters  of  ponds  of  many 
acres  in  area,  and  to  cause  sensible  inconvenience,  is  comparatively 
small;  the  most  common  in  this  neighborhood  (New  England) 
seeming  to  be  the  Clathrocystis  (zruginosa,  but  certain  plants 
referable  to  the  Nostochinea  are  not  uncommon  alone,  or  in 
company  with  the  Clathrocystis} 

The  inconvenience  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  plant  is  felt 
first  by  those  who  use  the  water  for  town-supply,  and,  secondly, 
by  those  who  cut  ice  upon  the  pond.  While  the  plant  is  ahve  and 
growing,  there  is  little  taste  or  odor  given  to  the  water,  hardly 
noticeable  if  the  water  is  iced.  When  the  plants  enter  into  the 
first  stage  of  decay,  the  water  acquires  a  pecuHar  taste  and  odor. 
Light  and  a  certain  degree  of  temperature  are  requisite  for  the 
normal  growth  of  these  algae,  and  the  decay  often  takes  place  in 
the  mains  and  service-pipes;  it  will  not  infrequently  happen 
that  the  water  in  a  reservoir  or  pond  will  have  almost  no  taste, 
while  the  water  as  delivered  to  consumers  will  have  a  decided 
taste.  By  the  settling  of  the  green  growth  to  the  bottom  in  a 
more  or  less  decayed  state,  the  ponds  are  generally  cleared 
before  the  cold  weather  sets  in;  but,  in  several  cases  which 
have  come  under  my  observation,  the  material  floats  up  to 

^  It  may  be  interesting  to  note,  with  reference  to  the  chemical  effect  of  the  pres- 
ence of  these  algae,  that  they  are  highly  nitrogenous.  A  sample  collected  in  the 
Ludlow  Reservoir  was  dried,  and  was  found  to  contain  11. 18  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 
The  sample  consisted  mainly  of  the  Clathrocystis,  but  of  course  it  was  impossible  to 
separate  the  microscopic  animal  organisms  from  the  vegetable. 


34  STATE  SANITATION 

the  under  surface  of  the  ice,  and  is  frozen  into  the  ice,  making 
it  unmarketable. 

Among  the  various  questions  which  are  often  propounded  with 
reference  to  the  matter  are  the  following : 

1 .  What  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble  ? 

2.  Is  it  injurious  to  health  ? 

3.  Can  anything  be  done  to  prevent  it  ? 

(A)  The  Cause  of  the  Trouble.  —  Although  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  trouble  is  caused  by  minute  vegetable  organisms,  of 
whose  Ufe-history  a  good  deal  is  known  to  botanists,  various 
suggestions  have  been  made  as  to  the  cause  of  its  appearance. 
By  many  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  sort  of  fermentation,  a 
process  of  purification.^  In  some  cases,  this  abundant  appear- 
ance of  the  green  matter  has  seemed  to  follow  the  apparent  in- 
crease of  sewage  and  other  impurities  discharged  into  the  pond. 
I  have  within  the  last  few  years  examined  a  great  many  ponds 
affected  in  this  way,  and  cannot  satisfy  myself  that  there  is  any 
connection  between  such  discharge  of  sewage  and  the  growth  of 
these  algae:  the  amount  of  soluble  nitrogenous  matter,  of  am- 
moniacal  salts,  of  phosphates,  and  of  other  mineral  compounds 
necessary  for  their  growth,  are  everywhere  present;  and  it  would 
be  unsafe  to  prophesy  the  security  therefrom  of  any  pond.  Al- 
though it  would  seem  that  ponds  recently  made  by  flowing 
marshy  or  cultivated  land  were  peculiarly  Hable  to  the  trouble, 
especially  if  shallow,  my  observations  have  led  me  to  make  even 
this  statement  less  emphatic  than  I  was  at  first  incHned. 

Although  these  plants  are  not  all  killed  by  a  considerable  degree 
of  cold,  still  they  thrive  only  in  warm  weather.  Observations  on 
this  point  are  incomplete;  but  such  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect 
would  seem  to  point  to  a  temperature  of  70°  F.,  or  thereabout, 
below  which  the  trouble  is  not  Hkely  to  begin.  Extended  obser- 
vations on  this  point  are  much  needed. 

1  I  have  often  found  that  residents  (farmers  and  others)  on  the  banks  of  large 
ponds  are  familiar  with  what  they  call  a  "  fomentation  "  in  the  pond,  taking  place 
with  some  regularity  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  which  phenomenon  is,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  a  growth  of  these  minute  algae. 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  35 

I  have  been  unable  to  satisfy  myself  that  the  presence  of 
aquatic  plants  at  the  margins  of  the  ponds  has  other  effect  than 
that  of  entangling  and  holding  masses  of  scum,  which  if  then 
exposed  to  a  hot  summer  sun  rapidly  enter  into  decay. 

(B)  Is  the  Matter  Injurious  to  Health? — The  observations  as 
to  the  effect  on  the  human  organism  of  water  containing  these 
algae,  are  not,  of  course,  very  definite  or  complete.  In  some 
places,  however,  where  the  only  source  of  supply  is  thus  affected, 
opportunity  for  observation  is  afforded.  I  have  not  been  able  to 
obtain  any  evidence  of  the  unwholesomeness  of  the  water  from  a 
supply  which  is  in  other  respects  of  good  quality.  When  the  algae 
are  alive  and  fresh,  horses  and  cattle  drink  the  water  readily,  in 
preference  to  spring  water:  when  decay  has  taken  place,  the 
water  sometimes  becomes  so  offensive  that  they  refuse  to  drink  it. 
In  this  condition  it  is  manifestly  unsuited  for  domestic  use. 

(C)  Can  Anything  he  done  to  prevent  the  Trouble?  — As  far  as 
our  present  knowledge  extends,  nothing. 

Various  plans  of  local  applicability  are  pursued  in  different 
places,  by  which  the  annoyance  is  lessened.  Sometimes  while  the 
vegetable  matter  is  a  scum,  water  may  be  wasted  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  reservoir,  at  a  point  where  the  material  has  collected; 
and  sometimes  the  pond  may  be  left  to  itself,  and  an  alternate 
supply  made  use  of. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  removing  the  vegetable  matter  com- 
pletely by  sand  filtration,  although  of  course  the  filters  become 
rapidly  clogged.  This  clogging  is  aided  also  by  the  development 
upon  the  beds  themselves  of  confervoid  growth,  which  in  un- 
covered beds  becomes  so  abundant  and  vigorous  as  to  form  a  sort 
of  carpet  on  the  surface  of  the  sand,  which  can  be  raked  off  in 
coherent  sheets,  or  rolled  up.  If  the  vegetable  matter  in  the 
water,  or  that  which  grows  in  the  beds,  enters  into  decay,  and 
communicates  an  unpleasant  taste  to  the  water,  the  filtration 
may  be  unable  to  remove  the  taste  completely.^ 

1  I  would  be  distinctly  understood  as  not  asserting  that  all  bad  tastes  and  odors 
to  which  water-supplies  are  subject  are  due  to  the  presence  of  these  or  other  algae. 
They  are  the  real  cause  of  a  real  trouble.    The  occurrence  of  a  fishy,  musty,  cucum- 


$6  STATE  SANITATION 

It  also  seems  that  filtration  through  sand  does  not  remove  the 
germs  or  spores  of  the  plants;  so  that  if  the  filtered  water  be 
stored  in  open  reservoirs,  exposed  to  fight,  it  is  again  fiable  to 
vegetable  growth.  For  this  reason,  such  water,  when  once 
filtered,  should  be  defivered  at  once  into  the  distribution-pipes; 
or,  if  storage  is  necessary,  it  should  be  stored  in  covered  reservoirs, 
preferably  of  such  size  as  to  be  readily  emptied  and  cleaned  if 
occasion  require. 

Conclusions 

I  will  here  bring  together  the  general  conclusions  reached  from 
a  study  of  the  practice  and  results  at  home  and  abroad,  and  from 
my  own  experiments. 

1.  No  material  has  yet  been  brought  into  practical  use  for 
artificial  filtration  on  the  large  scale,  except  sand. 

2.  With  our  present  knowledge  we  have  no  evidence  that  sand 
filtration  can  be  regarded  as  an  efficient  means  of  purification  of 
polluted  water;  although  it  may,  if  properly  carried  out,  lessen 
the  habihty  of  ill  effects. 

3.  All  visible  suspended  particles,  and  an  appreciable  pro- 
portion of  organic  matter  actually  in  solution,  may  be  removed 
by  properly  conducted  filtration  through  sand. 

4.  For  the  present,  at  any  rate,  it  will  be  best  to  regard  arti- 
ficial filtration  mainly  as  a  means  for  the  removal  of  suspended 
matters,  although  under  the  management  of  a  person  of  intelli- 
gence, education,  and  experience,  the  simple  sand  filter  is  capable 
of  producing  sensible  improvement  in  respect  to  the  organic 
matter  which  is  dissolved  in  the  water.  In  ordinary  practice, 
however,  it  is  quite  certain  that  sufficient  care  will  not  be  taken 
to  secure  such  results;   and,  in  view  of  what  is  actually  accom- 

ber,  green  corn,  or  other  peculiar  odor  or  taste,  may  be  due  to  the  presence  or  de- 
composition of  certain  algae;  but  it  may  be  produced  by  the  decay  of  more  highly 
organized  plants,  or  by  causes  of  which  we  are  ignorant.  For  instance,  the  cucum- 
ber taste  which  affected  the  Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir  of  the  Boston  Water  Works  in 
1875  w^3,s  traceable  to  no  such  cause,  nor,  indeed,  to  any  assignable  cause,  although 
careful  examinations  were  made  from  a  chemical,  from  a  botanical,  and  from  a 
zoological  standpoint.  Other  cases  also  have  come  under  my  observation,  where  no 
algae,  fresh  or  decomposed,  could  be  found  in  sufficient  quantity  to  account  for  the 
unpleasant  taste,  which  was  very  noticeable. 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  37 

plished  in  existing  works,  it  seems  to  be  best  to  regard  the  removal 
of  color  and  unpleasant  taste  as  incidental,  and  likely  to  vary 
very  much  according  to  the  condition  of  the  filter. 

As  the  public  mind  becomes  educated  in  the  matter,  a  higher 
standard  of  efficiency  may  be  exacted;  but  for  the  present  it 
should  not  be  held  out  to  towns  and  water-boards  as  a  result 
which  will  follow  filtration  through  sand,  that  a  water  which  is 
naturally  strongly  colored  by  vegetable  extractive  matter  will  be 
rendered  colorless  in  ordinary  practice,  although  it  is  true,  that, 
starting  with  an  entirely  new  filter,  the  first  portions  of  water 
filtered  may  be  deprived  of  color,  and  such  an  experiment  has 
often  led  into  error. 

5.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  introduce  a  system  of  sand  filtra- 
tion in  the  case  of  any  town-supply  unless  there  is  the  wilHngness 
to  make  such  outlay  for  construction  and  maintenance  as  shall 
render  the  scheme  thorough  and  efficient.  This  will  involve 
properly  constructed  filter-beds  and  generally  settling-basins  of 
sufficient  size ;  it  will  involve  intelligent  supervision,  and  frequent 
cleansing  and  renewing  of  the  material  of  the  filter.  It  should 
also  involve,  in  the  construction,  the  covering  of  the  filter-beds; 
and  for  the  best  effect  the  filtered  water  should  be  dehvered  at 
once  to  the  consumers.  There  should  be  at  least  dupHcate  beds, 
so  that  there  can  always  be  one  in  use.  If  on  account  of  lack  of 
duplicate  beds,  or  for  other  reasons,  it  seems  necessary  to  store 
the  filtered  water,  this  should  be  done  in  covered  reservoirs  of 
small  size,  which  can  be  readily  emptied  and  cleaned  if  occasion 
require.  It  cannot  be  said  too  emphatically  that  sand  filters, 
or  indeed  filters  of  any  description,  are  not  automatic,  and  that 
the  effect  obtained  depends  not  only  on  the  construction  of  the 
filters,  but  also,  and  even  more,  upon  the  care  with  which  they 
are  managed.  I  believe  that  money  expended  on  a  scheme  for 
filtration  is  practically  wasted  unless  a  sufficient  outlay  is  made 
to  secure  certain  efficiency.  It  is  possible  to  store  the  filtered 
water  under  such  conditions  that  it  shall  become  as  bad  as  before 
filtration.  A  desire  for  economy  in  original  outlay  may  lead  to  a 
scanty  area  of  settHng-basins  and  filter-beds;  but  a  subsequent 
larger  demand  than  the  plant  can  meet  will  necessitate  either 


38  STATE  SANITATION 

too  rapid  filtration,  by  which  imperfectly  filtered  water  will  be 
obtained,  and  the  beds  fouled  throughout;  or  an  admixture  of 
unfiltered  water,  which,  even  if  necessary  for  a  short  time  only, 
will  foul  the  pipes,  and  undo  the  subsequent  work  of  the  filter. 

I  should  not  recommend  any  town  to  undertake  the  artificial 
filtration  of  their  water  unless  they  were  willing  to  face  the  prob- 
ability of  its  costing  from  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  three 
dollars  per  million  gallons  in  addition  to  the  original  outlay  for 
the  works. 


VI 


ON  SOME  IMPURITIES  OF  DRINKING-WATER 
CAUSED  BY  VEGETABLE  GROWTHS 

By  Dr.  W.  G.  Farlow 

QThis  was  probably  the  first  paper  in  the  United  States  to  discuss  adequately  the 
character  of  the  microscopic  organisms  which  cause  tastes  and  odors  in  water. 
Supplement  to  First  Annual  Report,  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy  and  Charity,  1879, 
p.  131.  — G.  C.W.] 

The  object  of  the  present  paper  is  to  present  in  a  popular  form 
a  statement  of  what  is  known  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  the 
growth  of  different  plants  upon  the  water  in  the  ponds,  streams, 
and  basins  which  supply  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  Common- 
wealth. In  this  connection  the  subject  will  be  discussed  from  a 
botanical  point  of  view;  and  we  can  only  consider  certain  strik- 
ing properties,  such  as  smell  and  taste,  with  relation  to  the  par- 
ticular species  of  plants  which  produce  them,  without  taking  into 
account  the  more  subtile  changes  which  can  only  be  detected  by 
chemical  analysis.  It  is  desirable  that  all  who,  in  any  sense,  have 
charge  of  the  pubHc  health,  should  have  some  familiarity  with  the 
common  forms  of  plants  Hkely  to  pollute  drinking-water;  because, 
as  the  matter  now  stands,  the  pubhc  are  at  the  mercy  of  any 
person,  who,  armed  with  a  compound  microscope  and  a  supply  of 
Latin  and  Greek  names,  chooses  to  alarm  the  neighborhood  by  the 
announcement  of  the  appearance  in  the  water-supplies  of  plants 
whose  injurious  nature  is  supposed  to  be  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  length  and  incomprehensibility  of  their  names.  The  pubHc 
are  now  beginning  to  read  about  the  germ- theory  of  disease;  and 
hearing  that  fevers  may  be  produced  by  germs,  and  being  told 
that  germs  are  found  in  water,  they  very  naturally  but  illogically 
infer  that  any  small  bodies  found  in  the  water  are  the  germs  of 
disease.  Whatever  of  truth  there  may  be  in  the  germ-theory  of 
disease,  there  is  no  doubt  that  designing  persons  impose  on  the 


40  STATE  SANITATION 

credulity  and  fears  of  the  public  by  representing  as  germs  of 
disease  microscopic  plants  which  could  not  possibly  have  caused 
any  of  the  diseases  which  have  been  supposed  by  scientific  men 
to  be  produced  by  germs  of  a  vegetable  nature. 

The  most  striking  plants  which  are  found  in  fresh  water  are 
those  which  are  commonly  called  weeds;  as,  for  example, 
pond-weed,  pickerel-weed,  eel-grass,  etc.  They  all  have  distinct 
stems  and  leaves,  and  produce  flowers,  using  the  word  in  a 
botanical  sense.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  pickerel-weed  and  pond- 
lihes,  the  flowers  are  striking,  and  readily  recognized  as  such;  but 
in  most  of  the  water-weeds  they  are  small  and  obscure,  and  pass 
unrecognized  by  the  public.  The  mass  of  the  water-weeds  of  this 
region  belong  to  a  comparatively  few  botanical  genera;  e.  g., 
Myriophyllum,  Ceratophyllum,  Callitriche,  Utricularia,  Anacharis, 
Potamogeton,  Naias,  V allisneria,  etc.  They  all  start  from 
roots  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  streams,  and  may  attain 
a  length  of  several  feet.  Late  in  the  season,  and  especially 
when  the  water  has  been  disturbed  by  strong  winds,  they  break 
from  their  attachments,  and  are  washed  ashore  often  in  large 
heaps. 

The  Lemnae,  or  duck-weeds  as  they  are  popularly  called  {see 
Plate  I,  Figs.  4,  5),  although  classed  by  botanists  with  flowering- 
plants,  differ  in  habit  from  our  other  common  water-weeds. 
Instead  of  growing  from  the  bottom,  and  having  stems  and  leaves, 
they  float  in  immense  numbers  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  form- 
ing a  scum,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  ponds  of  the  town  of  Winchester, 
and  at  other  points  in  the  Mystic  Valley.  The  duck-weeds  have 
no  distinct  stem  and  leaves,  but  consist  merely  of  more  or  less 
roundish,  grass-green  disks,  not  usually  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  from  the  under  side  of  which  delicate  roots 
project  into  the  water.  All  the  flowering  plants  commonly  in- 
cluded under  the  name  of  water-weeds,  whether  they  grow  from 
the  bottom,  as  is  usually  the  case,  and  have  distinct  stems  and 
leaves,  or,  as  in  the  exceptional  case  of  the  duck-weeds,  float  on 
the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  scum,  may,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, be  considered  harmless  as  far  as  any  direct  effect  pro- 
duced on  drinking-water  is  concerned. 


VEGETABLE  GROWTHS  41 

They  may,  however,  be  sources  of  trouble  in  two  ways.  In  the 
first  place,  they  may  cause  a  mechanical  difficulty,  when  growing 
luxuriantly,  by  choking  up  small  streams  or  bodies  of  shallow 
water.  This  difficulty  is  not  so  Hkely  to  arise  in  bodies  of  water 
used  as  water-supplies  as  in  the  small  sheets  of  water  used  for 
ornamental  purposes.  In  the  latter  case,  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  the  means  taken  for  avoiding  a  growth  of  plants, 
such  as  cementing  or  stoning  the  bottoms  and  margins  of  small 
ponds,  seem  to  encourage  the  growth  of  certain  species  of  weeds 
which  do  not  flourish  to  any  very  great  extent  in  natural  basins. 
In  an  artificial  pond  supplied  by  a  brook  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Boston,  the  water  was  completely  filled,  and  the  pond  disfigured, 
by  a  growth,  of  the  common  "water-starwort,  Callitriche  verna, 
which  in  this  region  rarely  grows  in  large  quantities  in  brooks. 
We  may  here  refer  to  the  well-known  case  of  the  plant  known  in 
England  as  Babington's  curse,  because  it  was  introduced  into 
that  country  from  America  by  Professor  C.  C,  Babington  of 
Cambridge  University.  It  is  the  species  known  to  American 
botanists  under  the  name  of  Anacharis  Canadensis,  which, 
although  not  at  all  rare  in  this  country,  is  not  so  common  as  to 
prove  a  nuisance,  or  at  least  has  not  been  so  until  within  a  com- 
paratively few  years.  Introduced  into  England,  and  thence  trans- 
ferred to  the  Continent,  it  grew  so  luxuriantly  as  to  choke  small 
water-courses,  and  thus  became  a  great  pest.  Even  in  this  coun- 
try, the  species  is  becoming  more  common,  and  that,  too,  in  places 
where  special  efforts  are  made  to  keep  the  water  clear  of  weeds. 
We  may  instance  as  an  example  Fresh  Pond,  now  used  as  a  source 
of  water-supply  for  the  city  of  Cambridge,  in  which  the  Anacharis 
has  become  so  abundant  that  the  pond  has  to  be  periodically 
dredged.  Just  why  certain  species  increase  in  bodies  of  water 
which  have  been  artificially  stoned  or  embanked  is  not  clear.  It 
may  be  that,  by  removing  the  larger  weeds,  a  better  chance  is 
given  to  the  smaller  species,  among  which  Anacharis  is  included. 
It  may  also  be  true,  in  the  case  of  small  pieces  of  water,  that  the 
lime  or  other  ingredients  of  the  stones  and  cement  used  may  make 
the  water  better  adapted  to  the  growth  of  some  species  at  the 
expense  of  others. 


42  STATE  SANITATION 

A  second  source  of  danger  from  the  presence  of  large  masses  of 
weeds,  especially  in  basins  Liable  to  frequent  changes  in  the  height 
of  the  water-level,  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  may  serve  as  places  of 
attachment  or  shelter  for  some  of  the  injurious  small  plants  to 
which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  presently. 

We  have  said,  that,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  no  direct 
trouble  is  Hkely  to  arise  from  the  growth  of  any  of  the  larger 
weeds  in  our  water-supplies.  By  the  expression,  "  under  ordinary 
circumstances,"  we  mean  to  presuppose  that  the  plants  are  living 
and  flourishing.  The  question  still  arises  as  to  the  effect  they 
would  produce  in  decay.  The  answer  to  this  question  falls  rather 
within  the  province  of  a  chemist  than  that  of  a  botanist;  but  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  no  danger  is  to  be  anticipated  from  the  death  of 
vegetation  in  the  autumn,  certainly  provided  the  water  for  imme- 
diate use  is  stored  for  a  time  in  a  receiving-reservoir. 

The  case  of  masses  of  plants  suddenly  killed  by  the  lowering  of 
the  water  in  the  heat  of  summer  may  be  different.  Here  it  is  pos- 
sible that  trouble  might  arise;  but  we  have  no  direct  evidence  to 
show  that  decided  injury  has  resulted  in  any  particular  case  from 
drinking  water  coming  from  ponds  or  streams  in  which  were 
decaying  plants  of  the  group  which  we  have  characterized  as 
weeds.  Neither  can  we  say  that  any  well-defined  odor  or  taste 
marks  the  water  containing  merely  weeds  in  a  state  of  decomposi- 
tion. As  we  shall  see,  the  extremely  disagreeable  tastes  and  odors 
are  produced  by  plants  which  cannot  be  included  in  the  group 
which  we  are  now  considering,  —  plants  of  a  very  different 
appearance  and  structure. 

Let  us  begin  a  more  detailed  study  with  an  examination  of  some 
of  the  typical  forms  of  the  Nostoc  family,  which  are  represented 
in  Plate  II.  The  figures  4  and  5  represent  respectively  CoelosphcB- 
rium  Kuetzingianum  and  Clathrocystis  ceruginosa,  two  species 
found  diffused  in  the  water,  or  forming  scums  upon  the  surface. 
These  two  species  consist  of  a  mass  of  jelly,  in  which  are  embedded 
the  cells,  which  are  bluish-green.  We  speak  of  such  collections  of 
cells  as  colonies,  because,  in  a  certain  sense,  each  cell  is  capable  of 
living  by  itself,  and  the  dependence  of  the  different  cells  on  one 
another  is  not  essential,  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  cells  which  form 


VEGETABLE  GROWTHS  43 

the  higher  plants.  The  cells  of  the  Clathrocystis  are  spherical ;  but 
those  of  the  Coelosphcerium  are  oblong,  and  all  have  their  longer 
axes  directed  towards  the  centre  of  the  mucus  in  which  they  are 
embedded.  The  last-named  species  may  be  found  in  its  earher 
stages  attached  to  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  water-plants;  and,  in 
that  condition,  the  colonies  are  small  and  nearly  spherical.  When 
found  floating  on  the  surface,  they  are  generally  lobulated  as  in 
Fig.  4,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  colorless  film  of  mucus,  which  can 
hardly  be  well  shown  in  a  drawing.  The  film  is  often  fringed  by  a 
halo  of  very  short  colorless  filaments,  or  rather  rods.  The  rods 
have  no  direct  connection  with  the  CoelosphcErium  itself  but  are 
caused  by  the  action  of  small  parasites,  species  of  Bacillus  and 
Vibrio,  on  the  mucus  in  which  the  cells  are  embedded.  A  section 
through  the  CcelosphcBrium  colonies  would  show  that  the  colored 
cells  are  confined  to  the  surface,  and  that  the  interior  is  a  mass  of 
mucus  or  jelly  traversed  by  bands  of  a  denser  substance  than  the 
rest  of  the  interior.  The  Clathrocystis,  Fig.  5,  begins  as  a  small 
solid  body  resembling  the  young  Ccelosphcerium,  except  in  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  cells  composing  it.  The  outer  cells  increase 
rapidly  by  dividing  into  two  parts,  each  part  growing  to  the  size 
of  the  original  cell.  By  repetitions  of  this  process,  the  plant  which 
was  at  first  solid  becomes  a  hollow  mass  of  spheroidal  shape. 
Certain  portions  of  the  surface  then  bud  out  from  the  rest,  and 
the  whole  mass  becomes  lobulated  and  irregular.  The  projecting 
buds  or  lobes  then  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  colony;  and,  as  a 
result,  we  have  what  is  represented  in  Fig.  5,  a  net-shaped  bag  of 
irregular  outline.  The  lobes  or  buds  which  have  fallen  off  so  as 
to  leave  holes  in  the  mother  colony  form  new  colonies;  and  the 
same  mode  of  increase  and  budding  is  repeated  in  them. 

The  question  as  to  the  exact  amount  of  harm  caused  by  the 
excessive  growth  of  Ccelospharium  and  Clathrocystis  in  the  water- 
supphes  is  to  be  answered  by  physicians  and  sanitarians  rather 
than  by  botanists.  The  water  immediately  affected  becomes  too 
offensive  to  drink;  and  the  only  practical  question  is,  whether 
the  disagreeable  properties  are  conveyed  any  considerable  dis- 
tance. During  the  period  of  the  trouble  in  Horn  Pond  last  sum- 
mer, great  complaint  about  the  water  was  made  in  East  Boston, 


44  STATE  SANITATION 

which  is  supplied  by  the  Mystic  system.  Something  is  perhaps 
to  be  attributed  to  the  imagination,  as  rather  terrifying  accounts 
of  the  state  of  Horn  Pond  were  published  in  the  papers  at  the 
time.  But  beyond  this  there  was  undoubtedly  a  real  repugnance 
to  the  water.  As  to  the  possibility  of  purifying  the  water  by 
filtering,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  some  days  in  a  reservoir,  much 
good  may  be  accomplished;  but,  judging  from  the  experience  of 
last  summer,  the  water  cannot  be  entirely  purified  by  these 
means. 

In  one  respect,  the  fears  of  the  public  may  be  set  at  rest.  The 
theory  that  certain  diseases,  as  fevers,  are  produced  by  germs  of 
some  low  forms  of  plant-Kfe,  whether  true  or  not,  has  no  bearing 
on  the  present  case.  On  the  one  hand,  although  we  know  that 
the  species  described  in  the  present  article  do  cause  the  disa- 
greeable pig-pen  odor,  and  do  render  the  water  at  times  unfit  to 
drink,  we  know,  on  the  other  hand,  that  they  do  not  cause  the 
specific  diseases  whose  origin  is  considered  to  be  explained  by  the 
germ-theory.  The  germs,  so  called,  are  all  species  of  bacteria, 
distinct  from  the  Nostoc  family  and  much  smaller.  The  pubUc 
should  receive  with  very  great  caution  any  statements  about  the . 
dangerous  effect  of  bacteria  in  our  waters;  and,  instead  of  worry- 
ing over  the  subject,  had  better  leave  the  matter  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  scientific  people,  who,  at  the  present  day,  are  the  only 
persons  who  can  be  expected  to  follow  the  complicated  and 
obscure  relations  of  this  difficult  question. 

In  conclusion,  we  must  mention  one  or  two  species  which  pos- 
sess an  interest  in  connection  with  those  already  described.  One 
finds  on  the  submerged  iron  of  almost  all  water  works  a  rusty- 
colored,  slimy  plant.  This  is  Lyngbya  ochracea,  or,  as  it  is  more 
frequently  called,  Leptothrix  ochracea,  a  very  much  more  dehcate 
species  than  the  Lyngbya  shown  in  the  accompanying  plate.  It 
does  no  harm  to  the  water,  as  far  as  injury  to  its  drinking  prop- 
erties is  concerned ;  but  it  is  a  great  pest  to  paper  manufacturers, 
who  require  water  free  from  all  coloring  matter. 

We  must  also  mention  a  small  group  of  plants,  the  Beggiatoce, 
classed  by  some  writers  in  the  Nostoc  family;  although  they  are 
white,  not  bluish-green,  when  seen  with  the  naked  eye.    The 


VEGETABLE  GROWTHS  45 

species  of  Beggiatoa  are  filamentous,  and  look  something  like  a 
Lyngbya  destitute  of  a  sheath.  They  are  characterized  by  the 
rapid  vibrations  of  their  filaments,  and  by  the  fact  that  they  give 
off  an  odor  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  They  are  common  in 
house-drains  and  sluggish  ditches  near  factories,  especially  where 
the  water  is  made  warm  by  discharged  steam  or  hot  water.  They 
are  also  found  along  the  seashore,  and  abundantly  in  hot  springs, 
and  appear  to  the  naked  eye  like  very  fine  white  films.  Under  the 
microscope  the  filaments  are  seen  to  oscillate,  at  the  same  time 
advancing  or  retreating;  and  in  the  cells  themselves  are  dark 
granules  which  consist  of  sulphur. 

From  a  botanical  point  of  view,  the  floating  Nostocs  are  very 
interesting;  but  it  is  usually  dif&cult  to  get  good  material  for 
study  unless  one  is  on  the  spot.  The  species  of  Anabcena  are 
especially  prone  to  break  up  and  decompose  when  sent  by  express, 
and  the  various  preservative  fluids  are  of  little  use.  To  determine 
the  species  one  should  have  the  spores  and  heterocysts  in  position. 
The  best  way  of  preparing  specimens  is,  by  means  of  a  pipette,  to 
drop  some  of  the  water  containing  the  plants  upon  a  piece  of  mica 
or  glass,  and  let  it  dry.  The  specimens  can  then  be  sent  any  dis- 
tance; and,  on  re-moistening,  the  filaments  swell  up  so  that  they 
can  be  well  studied.  If  they  do  not  at  once  recover  their  form,  a 
little  ammonia  or  potash  may  be  added.  Information  about  the 
winter  condition  of  the  vegetation  is  very  much  wanted;  and 
especially  do  we  need  an  accurate  chemical  knowledge  of  their 
relation  to  the  water  in  which  they  grow. 


46  STATE  SANITATION 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES 

Plate  I 

All  the  species  figured  in  this  plate  are  grass-green,  and  produce  no  injurious 
effect  on  drinking-water. 

Figs.  1-3.  —  Chara  coronata,  var.  Schweinitzii,  A.  Br.  Fig.  i,  life  size;  Fig.  2, 
branch  with  antheridia,  a,  and  sporangia,  b,  magnified  sUghtly;  Fig.  3,  sporangium 
containing  spore  magnified  50  diameters. 

Figs.  4,  5.  —  Lemna  polyrrhiza,  L.  Fig.  4,  life  size;  Fig.  5,  the  same  seen  from 
the  under  side,  and  slightly  magnified. 

Figs.  1-5  were  drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Faxon. 

Fig.  6.  —  Cosmarium  Botrytis,  Menegh.  From  Ralf' s  British  Desmidieae.  a  and 
b  are  two  unicellar  individuals,  which  are  represented  in  c  and  d  respectively  as 
having  ruptured,  their  contents  having  xmited  to  form  the  spore,  s.  Diameter  of 
spore,  -g-yg^  of  an  inch. 

Fig.  7.  —  Spirogyra  from  Luerssen's  Handbuch.  c,  chlorophyl-bands  in  the 
cells;  s,  spores  formed  by  the  union  of  the  contents  of  two  ceUs.  Magnified  240 
diameters. 

Plate  II 

All  the  species  figured  in  this  plate  are  of  a  bluish-green  color,  and  in  decay  give  off 
a  pig-pen  odor. 

Fig.  I.  —  Ccelospharium  Kuetzingianum,  Naeg.,  and  Anabxna  Flos-aqua,  var. 
circinalis,  Kirchner.  From  the  surface  of  Basin  No.  3,  South  Framingham,  October, 
1879.    Magnified  300  diameters. 

Fig.  2.  —  The  same,  showing  details  of  Anabcena.    a,  spores;    b,  heterocysts. 

Fig.  3.  —  A  portion  of  Fig.  2,  magnified  600  diameters. 

Fig.  4.  —  Ccelosphmrium.  From  Fig.  i,  magnified  600  diameters.  A  gelatinous 
halo  is  usually  found  roimd  the  colonies  when  seen  with  this  power. 

Fig.  5.  —  Clathrocystis  ceruginosa,  Henfrey.  From  Fresh  Pond,  Cambridge, 
October,  1879.    Mature  colony  magnified  400  diameters. 

Fig.  6.  —  Lyngbya  Wollei,  Farlow.  From  Horn  Pond,  Wobum.  A  portion  of 
two  filaments  magnified  400  diameters,  showing  the  bluish-green  disk-shaped  cells, 
surrounded  by  a  colorless  sheath. 


Plate  I.     Figs.  1-7. 


Plate  II.     Figs.  i-6. 


VII 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIVE  POISONOUS  EFFECTS 
OF  COAL  AND  WATER  GAS 

By  William  T.  Sedgwick  and  William  Ripley  Nichols 

[This  paper  was  written  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  vigorous  legislative  contest 
over  the  subject  of  water  gas,  instigated  by  rival  business  and  political  interests. 
The  object  of  the  investigation  was  to  obtain  the  scientific  facts  as  a  basis  for  a 
proper  settlement  of  the  question.  In  spite  of  the  findings,  the  water  gas  interests 
won,  and  this  gas  has  been  widely  used  in  recent  years.  Reprinted  from  Supplement 
to  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy  and  Charity,  1884, 
p.  275.  — G.  C.  W.] 

The  recent  extensive  employment  for  illuminating  purposes 
of  the  so-called  "  water  "  gas,  derived  from  the  decomposition  of 
steam  by  the  action  of  incandescent  coal  and  enriched  with  the 
vapor  of  naphtha,  has  excited  a  vigorous  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  this  gas  is,  or  is  not,  more  dangerous  to  the  public 
health  when  distributed  for  the  purposes  of  illumination,  than  the 
ordinary  "  coal  "  gas  derived  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
bituminous  coal.  Up  to  the  present  time,  although  opinions, 
chiefly  a  priori,  have  been  freely  expressed  in  the  afl&rmative,  and 
especially  in  the  negative,  in  answer  to  the  question,  very  little 
experimental  evidence  has  been  available. 

In  view  of  the  possibihty  of  the  general  substitution  of  water 
gas  for  the  coal  gas  now  in  common  use  in  Massachusetts,  the 
question  has  assumed  a  large  pubHc  importance,  and  accordingly, 
under  the  instruction  and  direction  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity,  an  investigation  was  undertaken  by  us,  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  facts  which  might  serve  to  answer  the 
question. 

At  the  outset  an  experimental  room  was  built  to  imitate  in  size 
and  closeness  an  ordinary  sleeping-room  of  medium  size.  It  was 
originally  our  intention  to  place  in  this  room  animals  of  different 
kinds  (in  order,  by  learning  the  effects  upon  animals  in  general, 
—  since  it  was  not  possible  to  experiment  upon  men,  —  to  infer 

47 


48  STATE  SANITATION 

concerning  the  effects  upon  man  himself),  and  then  to  introduce 
into  it,  through  one  or  more  burners,  at  a  known  rate,  coal  gas  or 
water  gas  in  successive  experiments.  This  room  was  readily  sup- 
plied with  coal  gas,  and  it  was  supposed  that  it  would  not  be 
difficult  to  obtain  and  control  a  supply  of  water  gas  sufficient  for 
our  use.  But  in  this  we  were  disappointed,  and  after  several 
attempts  and  many  annoying  delays  it  became  evident  that  it 
would  be  easier  and  in  some  respects  better  to  visit  places  sup- 
plied with  water  gas  and  there  make  comparative  experiments. 

Accordingly,  we  visited  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  Athol,  Mass., 
both  of  which  were  supplied  with  water  gas,  and  there  made  sev- 
eral experiments.  Afterwards  we  remodelled  the  original  room 
supplied  with  coal  gas  —  at  Newton  Centre,  Mass.  —  and  there 
concluded  our  experiments  upon  animals.  More  recently,  one 
of  us  has  made  a  special  experiment  in  a  room  in  his  own  house, 
and  has  also  studied  the  influence  upon  coal  gas  of  its  passage 
through  artificial  soils.  For  the  special  details  of  most  of  these 
experiments  reference  must  be  made  to  the  appendix  ^  to  this 
paper.  There  also  will  be  found  the  description  of  the  methods 
employed  in  sampHng,  in  analysis,  etc.  In  the  present  place  it  will 
suffice  to  state  the  results  to  which  our  experiments  have  led  us, 
and  also  certain  practical  conclusions  which  naturally  follow. 

I.  With  ordinary  gas  fixtures  it  is  generally  difficult  to  get 
more  than  three  per  cent  of  illuminating  gas  into  an  ordinary 
room.  By  using  one  burner  alone  it  is  difficult  to  exceed  one  per 
cent. 

The  explanation  of  these  facts  is  very  simple  and  depends 
upon  the  rapid  leakage  and  diffusion  —  the  "  natural  "  ventila- 
tion —  which  is  all  the  time  going  on  through  the  walls,  ceiHng 
and  floor,  and  through  the  "  cracks  "  about  the  doors  and  win- 
dows. The  rate  at  which  this  goes  on  keeps  pace  in  a  general  way 
with  the  amount  of  inflow,  increasing  as  the  inflow  increases,  so 
that  no  extensive  accumulation  can  take  place.  Rather,  a  bal- 
ance, so  to  speak,  is  struck  if  the  inflow  be  constant,  between 
the  amount  flowing  in  and  that  flowing  out,  so  that  a  tolerably 
definite  quantity  is  always  in  the  room.     But  as  the  outflow 

^  Not  here  reprinted. 


GAS  POISONING  49 

increases  more  rapidly  in  proportion,  in  order  to  raise  to  any- 
great  extent  the  amount  that  shall  remain  in  the  room,  it  is 
necessary  that  a  very  much  larger  amount  shall  flow  in.  For 
example :  with  six  feet  per  hour  it  is  difficult  to  keep  one  per  cent 
in  a  small  room,  but  it  would  be  much  more  difficult  to  reach 
two  per  cent  with  twelve  feet  per  hour,  and  quite  impossible 
(under  ordinary  circumstances)  to  reach  six  per  cent  with  thirty- 
six  feet  per  hour. 

II.  With  coal  gas  it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  get  into 
an  ordinary  apartment  through  the  ordinary  burners  gas  enough 
to  produce  upon  healthy  animals  distinctly  poisonous  effects. 
With  water  gas,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  get 
into  an  ordinary  apartment,  through  the  ordinary  burners,  gas 
enough  to  produce  poisonous  and  even  fatal  effects. 

This  is  not  because  water  gas  flows  in  more  freely,  or  accumu- 
lates in  any  way,  in  the  room.  For  the  percentages  present  under 
similar  circumstances,  after  the  lapse  of  the  same  time,  do  not 
materially  differ  with  the  two  gases.  The  only  explanation  which 
we  have  been  able  to  discover  is,  that  under  the  same  circum- 
stances water  gas  is  considerably  more  poisonous  than  coal 
gas. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  in  order  to  produce  poisoning  by 
either  gas,  a  certain  percentage  of  carbonic  oxide  must  be  present. 
And  upon  this  view  the  facts  are  readily  interpreted,  for  water 
gas  contains  enough  of  carbonic  oxide  to  supply  imder  these  cir- 
cumstances a  dangerous  amount  while  coal  gas  does  not.  It  must 
certainly  be  accounted  a  curious  fact,  though  it  appears  to  be 
true,  that  in  the  combination  of  ordinary  apartments,  ordinary 
gas  fixtures  and  ordinary  coal  gas,  there  happens  to  be  compara- 
tive safety,  while  in  the  combination  of  ordinary  apartments, 
ordinary  gas  fixtures  and  ordinary  water  gas,  there  is  comparative 
danger. 

III.  It  does  not  follow  that  because  one  illuminating  gas  con- 
tains three,  four  or  five  times  as  much  carbonic  oxide  as  another  it 
is  therefore  only  three,  four  or  five  times  as  dangerous  to  life. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  no  such  simple  relation  can 
possibly  exist.    For  it  is  not  conceivable  that  a  gas  containing 


50  STATE  SANITATION 

ninety  per  cent  of  carbonic  oxide  would  be  exactly  twice  as  dan- 
gerous to  inhale  as  one  with  forty-five  per  cent:  both  would  be 
extremely  dangerous.  Nor  would  pure  carbonic  oxide  be  merely 
one  thousand  times  as  dangerous,  if  inhaled,  as  a  mixture  of  air 
and  carbonic  oxide  in  which  the  latter  amounted  to  o.i  per  cent: 
it  would  be  infinitely  more  dangerous.  Again,  a  mixture  of  air 
and  illuminating  gas  might  be  inhaled  for  a  short  time,  which  con- 
tained only  o.ooi  per  cent  of  carbonic  oxide,  but  to  say  that  this 
was  precisely  half  as  dangerous  as  a  mixture  containing  0.002  per 
cent  would  be  obviously  absurd:  neither  would  be  noticed  at  all. 

From  the  experiments  of  others,  and  from  our  own  work,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  atmospheres  containing  eight  per  cent  or  more  of 
either  coal  gas  or  water  gas  will  destroy  life  very  quickly,  and  that 
atmospheres  containing  0.2  per  cent  or  less  of  either  gas  may  be 
breathed  for  a  long  time  without  producing  distinctly  poisonous 
effects.  But,  between  these  limits,  there  is  for  each  gas  a  per- 
centage (different  in  the  two  gases  and  always  a  lower  percentage 
with  water  gas  than  with  coal  gas),  above  which  the  danger 
increases,  and  below  which  it  diminishes,  very  rapidly.  This 
percentage  is  known  as  the  "  danger-Hne,"  or  "  threshold,"  and 
varies  widely  with  individuals,  sex,  physical  condition,  etc.  In 
terms  of  carbonic  oxide  it  is  probably  never  very  far  from  0.5 
per  cent  for  the  human  species. 

The  reason  why  water  gas  is  so  much  more  dangerous  than 
coal  gas  appears  to  be  that  this  danger  line  is  comparatively 
easily  reached  or  overstepped  with  water  gas,  rich  as  it  is  in 
carbonic  oxide,  while  the  comparative  poverty  of  coal  gas,  in 
this  respect,  brings  it  well  below  the  line  into  the  region  of 
comparative  safety.^ 

IV.  Our  experiments  confirm  the  work  of  Gruber  and  others  who 
claim  that  carbonic  oxide  is  not  a  cumulative  poison.  That  is, 
the  breathing  of  a  small  quantity  for  a  long  time  is  not  equiva- 

^  In  these  particulars  carbonic  oxide  is  not  different  from  many  other  poisons. 
Thus  a  grain  of  morphia  generally  proves  fatal  to  a  healthy  adult.  A  quarter  of  a 
grain  is  generally  harmless.  Obviously,  the  grain  is  not  merely  four  times  as  dan- 
gerous. But  between  the  quarter  and  the  whole  there  must  be  some  quantity  which 
is  a  sort  of  limit  of  safety,  and  above  which  danger  becomes  imminent,  whUe  below 
it  safety  rapidly  increases. 


GAS  POISONING  51 

lent  to  the  breathing  of  a  large  quantity  for  a  short  time.  A 
similar  conclusion  may  be  drawn  for  all  the  constituents  of 
illuminating  gas. 

This,  however,  does  not  preclude  the  possibility,  which  can 
hardly  be  doubted,  that  even  small  quantities  produce  their 
proper  physiological  effects,  though  these  may  not  be  immedi- 
ately perceptible. 

From  the  fact  that  carbonic  oxide  is  not  a  cumulative  poison 
and  from  the  considerations  mentioned  before  concerning  the 
rapid  increase  of  danger  above,  and  the  decrease  of  it  below  the 
"  danger  Kne,"  it  follows  that,  within  certain  limits,  the  less 
carbonic  oxide  there  is  in  illuminating  gas  the  safer  it  is  for  pubKc 
use.  For  about  the  danger  Hne  a  very  moderate  decrease  of 
carbonic  oxide  may  very  greatly  enhance  its  safety,  while  a 
moderate  increase  may  very  greatly  multiply  the  dangers  arising 
from  its  use.  Nevertheless,  with  very  high  percentages  of  carbonic 
oxide  and  with  very  low  ones  this  does  not  hold  good,  because 
far  above  and  far  below  the  danger  Hne,  the  effect  of  slight 
variations  is  very  little. 

We  may  now  illustrate  the  foregoing  conclusions  by  examples 
drawn  from  our  own  experiments  and  more  fully  described  in  the 
appendix.  1  And  first,  as  to  the  difficulty  of  charging  rooms 
heavily  with  illuminating  gis. 

A  room  containing  1,140  cubic  feet  of  space  was  suppHed  with 
four  ordinary  burners.  Through  these  there  entered  the  room  at  a 
tolerably  constant  rate  during  24  hours,  1,200  feet  of  coal  gas. 
Yet  at  the  end  of  the  24  hours  the  top  of  the  room  just  above  the 
burners  contained  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air  of  which  the  former 
composed  only  three  per  cent,  while  the  lower  portions  of  the 
room  showed  less  than  one  per  cent.  Again,  a  room  holding  about 
the  same  amount  of  air  received  55  feet  of  water  gas  during  i| 
hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  largest  amount  discoverable 
in  the  room  was  i.i  per  cent  of  gas  in  the  whole  mixture  of  gas 
and  air. 

To  illustrate  the  second  conclusion,  viz.,  that  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  get  in  enough  gas  by  the  ordinary  fixtures  to  kill,  if  the 
1  Not  included  in  this  volume. 


52  STATE  SANITATION 

gas  be  coal  gas,  but  relatively  easy  if  it  be  water  gas,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  note  the  effects  of  the  two  experiments  just  quoted. 
In  the  former  (coal  gas)  after  24  hours  the  animals  though  some- 
what drowsy  and  stupefied  were  not  seriously  affected,  while  in  the 
latter,  after  i|  hours  only,  similar  animals  showed  most  alarming 
symptoms  and  one  was  dead  from  the  effects  of  the  gas.  From 
other  experiments  it  is  certain  that  had  this  experiment  been  long 
continued,  others,  and  probably  all  the  animals  would  soon  have 
perished. 

Similar  considerations  illustrate  the  third  conclusion,  for  it  is 
impossible  to  say  that  in  the  latter  case  the  animals  were  only  four 
or  five  times  worse  off  than  in  the  former.  It  is  plain  that  as  their 
lives  were  in  imminent  danger  and  as  they  were  vomiting  and  in 
distress,  it  is  not  possible  to  express  their  relative  danger  mathe- 
matically. The  first  experiment  just  mentioned  also  indicates 
that  carbonic  oxide  is  not  cumulative,  for  exposure  to  a  small 
amount  for  24  hours  led  to  no  serious  consequences. 

As  to  the  time  required  to  produce  poisoning :  this  seems  to  be 
merely  the  time  required  to  attain  a  poisonous  percentage  of 
carbonic  oxide;  and  this  clearly  depends  on  the  rate  of  inflow,  the 
size  of  the  room,  the  leakage,  etc.  Nevertheless,  owing  to  the 
peculiar  fact  already  mentioned  that  the  danger  Hne  for  both 
kinds  of  gas  probably  lies  between  0.2  of  one  per  cent  and  eight 
per  cent  of  gas  in  a  mixture  with  air  (though  always  lower  with 
water  gas  than  with  coal  gas),  and  that  with  ordinary  rooms  and 
ordinary  fixtures  such  percentages  are  liable  to  be  obtained,  it 
becomes  interesting  to  compare  the  time  relations  in  such 
apartments. 

The  following  experiments  illustrate  this,  besides  showing  how, 
under  certain  circumstances,  a  very  moderate  inflow  of  the  two 
gases  may  lead,  respectively,  to  totally  different  consequences: 

By  means  of  partitions,  two  rooms  —  one  in  Newton  and  one  in 
Athol  —  were  made  as  much  aKke  as  possible,  both  as  to  shape 
and  cubic  space.  Each  room  had  a  capacity  of  about  700  cubic 
feet,  which  was  somewhat  larger  than  a  room  in  Middletown  in 
which  a  fatal  case  of  poisoning  from  water  gas  actually  occurred. 
Three  dogs,  two  cats  and  two  rabbits  were  placed  in  the  room  in 


GAS  POISONING  53 

Athol,  and  the  water  gas  in  use  there,  containing  about  thirty  per 
cent  of  carbonic  oxide,  was  allowed  to  flow  in  from  a  single  ordi- 
nary burner,  at  the  rate  of  six  feet  per  hour.  The  experiment 
began  at  11. 15  a.m.,  and  at  12.45  P-^-  vomiting,  delirium,  convul- 
sions, etc.,  had  already  been  noted.  Half  an  hour  later,  all  the 
animals  were  unconscious,  or  apparently  so,  failing  to  respond  to 
calls  and  to  vigorous  knocks  upon  the  walls.  At  2.30  p.m.,  or 
about  three  hours  from  the  start,  two  cats  were  dead,  and  the 
other  animals  were  prone  and  quite  unconscious.  The  dogs  died 
at  3,  4,  and  6.30  o'clock,  respectively,  —  the  rabbits,  also,  at 
6.30.  In  a  word,  symptoms  of  poisoning  were  well  developed  in  an 
hour  and  a  half.  Deaths  began  to  occur  in  a  little  more  than  three 
hours,  and  all  were  dead  within  eight  hours. 

In  the  corresponding  experiment  at  Newton,  made  with  coal 
gas  containing  about  seven  per  cent  of  carbonic  oxide,  two  dogs, 
two  cats,  two  rabbits  and  two  pigeons  were  placed  in  the  room, 
and  the  gas  was  introduced  from  an  ordinary  burner,  as  before, 
and  at  the  same  rate,  —  six  feet  per  hour.  The  experiment  began 
at  8  A.M.,  and  for  three  and  one-hajf  hours  no  symptoms  of  con- 
sequence were  observed,  and  then  only  drowsiness  and  general 
anxiety,  with  salivation  in  one  case.  At  4  p.m.,  i.  e.,  after  eight 
hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  in  the  other  experiment  all  the 
animals  were  dead,  nothing  more  than  a  gradual  exaggeration  of 
the  symptoms  had  occurred.  Recovery,  apparently,  would  have 
been  still  possible  and  even  easy,  at  this  time. 

After  24  hours,  i.  e.,  at  8  a.m.  of  the  next  day,  one  cat  and 
one  rabbit  were  dead,  but  the  others  though  stupefied  were  not 
unconscious,  being  still  responsive  to  knocks  and  calls.  There 
is  little  doubt,  moreover,  that  as  the  night  was  extremely  cold 
(below  0°  F.)  and  the  rabbit  was  young  it  was  somewhat  chiUed 
by  the  cold  and  thus  succumbed  the  more  readily  to  the  gas. 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  conclusions  based  upon  experimental 
evidence  herewith  presented,  it  seems  to  us  that  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted by  all  that  water  gas  with  its  thirty  per  cent,  more  or  less, 
of  carbonic  oxide  is  a  more  dangerous  substance  than  coal  gas 
with  its  six  per  cent  or  seven  per  cent  of  carbonic  oxide,  and  that 
the  only  question  that  can  be  raised  is,  How  much  practical  im- 


54  STATE  SANITATION 

portance  is  to  be  attached  to  this  more  poisonous  character  ?  It 
will  help  to  answer  this  question  if  we  consider  under  what  cir- 
cumstances accidents  are  hkely  to  occur  as  a  result  of  the  general 
distribution  of  gas  for  illuminating  purposes. 

There  are  five  principal  ways  in  which  such  injuries  are  Hkely  to 
arise,  as  follows:  — 

1.  By  suffocation:  as  when  workmen  are  overpowered  in  the 
trenches  by  large  quantities  of  gas  escaping  from  broken  or  leaky 
mains. 

2.  By  the  formation  of  explosive  mixtures  with  air,  owing  to 
the  escape  of  the  gas  in  any  manner. 

3.  By  poisoning  during  sleep,  from  the  escape  into  the  sleep- 
ing-room of  gas  from  the  burner  because,  owing  to  defective  fix- 
tures, to  accident,  intention  or  ignorance,  the  light  has  been  put 
out  while  the  gas  is  still  allowed  to  flow  in. 

4.  By  the  slow  and  obscure  poisoning  (especially  of  feeble  or 
anaemic  persons)  owing  to  leaks  in  or  about  pipes  or  burners  in 
ordinary  dwelling-rooms. 

5.  By  poisoning,  especially  at  night,  when  doors  and  windows 
are  generally  closed,  with  gas  escaping  from  broken  (street)  mains 
into  the  earth,  afterwards  passing  through  drains  or  through  the 
soil  to  the  basements  of  dwellings,  and  thence  upwards  through- 
out the  house. 

The  question  has  been  raised,  whether  the  gas  in  passing  for 
some  distajice  through  the  ground  might  not  lose  its  odor  and  thus 
escape  into  houses  or  other  buildings  without  being  perceived. 
Everyone  knows  that  the  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  leaky  gas 
pipes  becomes  impregnated  with  the  characteristic  odor;  we 
should  therefore  infer  that  the  gas  must  lose  some  of  its  odorous 
ingredients.  It  may,  however,  be  the  case,  that  the  amount  lost 
by  any  given  volume  of  the  gas  is  proportionally  too  small  to 
make  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  gas  itself,  although  the  con- 
tinued passage  of  the  gas  makes  the  soil  decidedly  odorous.  The 
experience  of  those  connected  with  gas  distribution  has  shown 
that  leaks  may  occur  in  the  mains  without  the  facts  being  dis- 
covered by  the  odor  of  escaping  gas,  and,  in  fact,  it  was  deter- 
mined by  the  experts  of  the  Berlin  gas  works,  some  years  since, 


GAS  POISONING  55 

that  a  leak  of  not  more  than  0.2  cubic  meter  in  24  hours 
would  not  attract  observation.  It  seems  to  be  generally  agreed 
that  there  is  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor  which  may  be 
removed  if  the  gas  passes  for  a  sufficient  distance  through  the 
ground,  but  the  gas  does  not,  as  a  rule,  become  perfectly  odorless, 
and  probably  persons  who  were  not  experts  would  pronounce  the 
odor  that  of  gas. 

The  gas  which  escapes  through  the  ground  is  also  noticed  to  be 
less  luminous  than  before.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  its  being 
mixed  with  air,  for  it  is  possible  to  diminish  the  illuminating 
power  very  considerably,  by  an  admixture  of  air  (especially 
ground  air  with  its  higher  proportion  of  carbonic  acid),  without 
producing  an  explosive  mixture.  The  generally  conceived  idea  is 
that,  in  passing  through  the  ground,  the  gas  loses  a  greater  or  less 
portion  of  the  heavy  hydrocarbons  —  the  illuminants  —  along 
with  the  peculiar  odorous  substance  or  substances,  the  exact 
nature  of  which  is  not  known. 

The  only  experiments  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  where 
analyses  were  made  of  the  gas  before  and  after  passing  through 
the  soil,  are  those  of  Biefel  and  Poleck,  who  passed  gas  slowly 
through  a  pipe  2.35  meters  (say  seven  and  one-half  feet)  long, 
and  five  centimeters  (say  two  inches)  in  diameter,  filled  with  sandy 
loam.  The  pipe  was  connected  with  the  gas  main  between  the 
purifiers  and  the  gas  holders.  The  analysis  of  the  gas  before  and 
after  its  passage  through  the  soil  gave  the  following  results :  — 

Table  3 

Before  After 

Carbonic  acid 3.06  2.23 

Oxygen 0.00  6.55 

Illuminants 4.66  0.69 

Carbonic  oxide 10.52  i3-93 

Marsh  gas 31-24  17-76 

Hydrogen 49.44  47.13 

Nitrogen 1.08  11. 71 

100.00       100.00 

These  analyses  are  not  altogether  satisfactory,  and  it  would 
appear  that  the  air  originally  in  the  pipe  had  not  been  entirely 
displaced  when  the  issuing  gas  was  taken  for  analysis. 


56  STATE  SANITATION 

We  have  made  some  experiments  in  the  same  direction.  A 
galvanized  iron  cylinder,  ten  feet  long  and  eight  inches  in  diame- 
ter, was  filled  with  the  material  under  examination;  the  gas  was 
passed  slowly  in  at  one  end  through  a  quarter-inch  tube,  and 
issued  at  the  other  end  through  a  similar  tube.  If  gas  be  intro- 
duced into  such  a  pipe  it  does  not  force  the  air  out  bodily  before 
it,  but  mixes  with  it  more  or  less,  at  first,  and  we  think  that  in 
some  experiments  which  have  been  made  with  reference  to  this 
matter,  the  diminished  odor  and  illuminating  power  of  the  gas 
may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  contained  air  mixed 
with  it.  In  our  experiments  the  gas  entered  at  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  which  was  placed  vertically  in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  the  lower  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  and  avoid  mixing  as  much 
as  possible;  the  gas  was  allowed  to  flow  slowly  (one  cubic  foot  in 
from  twenty-five  minutes  to  two  hours) ,  and  samples  of  the  air  or 
gas  which  escaped  from  the  bottom  of  the  cyfinder  were  taken  at 
intervals.  If,  after  the  air  was  entirely  displaced,  the  issuing  gas 
was  not  different  in  composition  from  that  which  entered,  an 
end  was  put  to  the  experiment;  if  there  was  a  marked  difference, 
the  gas  was  allowed  to  flow  for  a  longer  period.  For  two  materials 
which  might  be  regarded  as  most  likely  and  least  likely  to  absorb 
the  heavy  hydrocarbons,  we  employed  fine,  pure,  siliceous  sand 
(kindly  furnished  by  the  Berkshire  Glass  Sand  Company,  Che- 
shire, Mass.),  and  ordinary  coal  ashes  such  as  are  frequently 
used  in  filling  low  land.  We  also  employed  a  mixture  of  dry  clay 
with  three  times  its  bulk  of  sand. 

The  general  results  may  be  briefly  expressed  as  follows:  The 
capacity  of  the  cylinder  was  approximately  three  and  one-half 
cubic  feet,  about  two-thirds  of  which  would  be  occupied  by  the 
substance  of  the  filling  material,  and  one-third,  say  one  and  one- 
sixth  cubic  feet,  would  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  be 
filled  with  air.  When  gas  was  introduced,  at  the  rate  of  one  cubic 
foot  in  from  twenty-five  minutes  to  two  hours,  the  issuing  mixture 
would  begin  to  burn  as  soon  as  from  1.2  to  2  cubic  feet  had 
entered  the  apparatus;  the  air  was  not,  however,  displaced  com- 
pletely until  about  four  cubic  feet  of  gas  had  flowed  in.  What 
escaped  thereafter  was  either  gas,  or  gas  robbed  of  some  portion 


GAS  POISONING  57 

of  its  constituents.  With  clean,  siliceous  sand,  or  with  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  dry  clay,  the  gas  did  not  seem  to  be  affected  to  any 
appreciable  extent.  When,  however,  the  cylinder  was  filled  with 
coal  ashes  such  as  are  used  in  "  making  "  land,  the  results  were 
very  different.  The  passage  through  only  ten  feet  of  this  material 
at  the  rate  of  one  cubic  foot  in  fifty  minutes,  the  temperature 
being  about  70°  F.,  was  sufficient  to  cause  an  almost  complete 
removal  of  the  heavy  hydrocarbons,  and  with  them  of  a  great 
deal  of  the  odor  and  of  the  illuminating  power.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  coal  gas  (and  the  case  would  be  the  same  with  water  gas)  in 
passing  through  the  ground  may  lose  its  odor  to  a  great  extent, 
and  it  would  appear  that  land  made  by  filling  in  with  ashes 
(where,  owing  to  settlement,  leaks  would  be  likely  to  occur) 
would  be  particularly  Hable  to  unnoticed  escape  of  gas. 


VIII 

REPORT  OF  A  COMMISSION  TO  CONSIDER  A  GENERAL 

SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE  FOR  THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE 

MYSTIC,  BLACKSTONE  AND  CHARLES  RIVERS 

By  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott 

Published  as  a  separate  document  in  1886. 

[This  report,  while  not  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
is  important  as  it  laid  the  foundation  for  the  work  of  the  Board  in  connection  with 
the  Purity  of  Inland  Waters.  Its  forceful  and  eloquent  words  have  been  the 
inspiration  of  Massachusetts  engineers  for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  should  con- 
tinue to  give  inspiration  for  all  time  to  come.  The  portion  of  the  report  quoted  is 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  undersigned  commissioners  appointed  to  consider  and 
report  systems  of  drainage  for  the  Mystic,  Blackstone  and 
Charles  rivers,  and  for  some  other  purposes  recited  in  a  resolve  of 
the  Legislature,  which  received  your  official  approval  on  the 
twenty-eighth  day  of  May,  1884,  beg  leave  to  state  that  they  have 
attended  to  the  duty  assigned  them,  and  desire  to  submit  the 
following  report:  — 

We  think  it  very  desirable  that  there  should  be  some  expert 
authority  to  consult  with  towns  and  cities  looking  for  pure 
and  adequate  water  supplies,  or  searching  for  unobjectionable 
methods  of  sewerage. 

The  difficulties  in  these  directions  are  becoming  greater  each 
year  and  the  resultant  confusion  and  complication  more  embar- 
rassing. In  the  two  years  eighty-three  and  eighty-four  alone, 
some  fifty  or  sixty  towns  came  up  to  the  State  House  for  leave  to 
take  or  increase  a  water  supply,  and  more  than  two  score  of 
private  companies  obtained  similar  privileges,  and  the  indications 
are  that  these  applications  will  show  Httle  diminution  for  many 
years  to  come.  Each  one  of  these  towns,  and  many  others  in  like 
case  will,  in  no  long  time,  find  that  water  supply  and  sewerage  are 
for  the  most  part  inseparable  companions.  Then,  instead  of  a 
carefully  prearranged  plan  of  sewers,  a  piecemeal,  hand  to  mouth 

58 


GENERAL  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE  59 

sort  of  a  makeshift  device  is  likely  to  be  improvised  from  day  to 
day,  entailing  unnecessary  expense  and  danger,  and  finally  total 
loss.  And  again  the  scramble  for  the  best  and  most  accessible 
waters  is  responsible  for  a  good  deal  of  avoidable  contention  and 
imperfectly  matured  legislation.  There  is  water  enough  for  all 
if  it  be  equitably  shared.  But  the  Legislature  is  annually  be- 
sieged by  importunate  suitors  who  are  bound  to  disregard  all 
claims  but  the  needs  of  their  own  constituents.  It  would  be  far 
better,  in  our  opinion,  if  there  were  some  competent  board  where 
all  these  jostling  demands  could  be  calmly  considered  and  sys- 
tematically adjusted.  We  have  accordingly  inserted  a  section  in 
one  of  the  subjoined  forms  of  statute  conferring  such  discretion 
upon  a  board  as  we  think  will  tend  to  promote  scientific  sewerage 
and  a  fair  and  judicious  distribution  of  pure  water.  Once  more 
disclaiming  any  design  on  our  part  to  attribute  any  especial 
propriety  to  the  forms  of  legislation  which  we  submit  and  which 
we  wish  to  be  regarded  as  auxiliary  suggestions  rather  than 
settled  conclusions,  we  approach  the  end  of  these  observations. 

Coming  to  the  final  division  of  our  report,  we  have  again  pre- 
ferred to  enlarge  rather  than  restrict  the  scope  of  the  jurisdiction 
which  can  be  strictly  derived  from  the  bare  text  of  the  resolve. 
We  "  may  consider  and  report  upon  the  needs  of  any  other  por- 
tion of  the  Commonwealth  as  to  the  disposal  of  sewage  and  the 
protection  of  the  public  water  supplies  therein."  We  have  deter- 
mined to  regard  the  whole  remaining  body  of  the  state,  and  not 
any  particular  division,  as  the  "  other  portion  "  as  to  which  we 
are  at  liberty  to  submit  our  views  upon  the  propriety  of  throwing 
further  safeguards  about  its  suppHes  of  drinking  water  and 
attempting  greater  system  in  the  disposal  of  its  sewage.  This 
interpretation  brings  within  the  purview  of  our  commission  the 
whole  subject  of  water  pollution  and  its  restriction  or  prevention 
within  the  state. 

We  take  it  that  no  one  will  controvert  the  general  proposition  of 
law  that  every  holder  of  property,  however  absolute  and  unquali- 
fied be  his  title,  holds  it  under  the  impHed  Kabihty  that  his  use  of 
it  may  be  so  regulated  that  it  shall  not  be  injurious  to  the  rights 
of  the  community. 


6o  STATE  SANITATION 

In  the  exercise  of  its  undoubted  prerogative  to  watch  over  the 
general  welfare  and  to  guard  the  public  rights  by  the  ample  police 
powers  with  which  it  is  armed,  the  Legislature  may  make  exactly 
such  rules  respecting  the  pollution  of  streams  and  ponds  or  other 
inland  waters  as  it  may  judge  requisite  and  necessary  for  the 
public  welfare.  It  may  absolutely  prohibit,  under  suitable 
penalty,  any  contamination  of  any  water  within  the  borders  of 
the  Commonwealth,  if  it  so  please.  It  is  a  question  always  of 
expediency  what  degree  of  interference  with  individual  liberty  is 
required  by  the  circumstances.  Thus  far  the  Legislature  has 
been  content  to  forbid  any  pollution  of  waters  used  directly  or 
indirectly  for  a  water  supply  by  any  city  or  town  within  twenty 
miles  above  the  point  of  taking,  provided  this  prohibition  be  not 
held  to  impair  rights  granted  by  statute  before  July  i,  1878,  or 
prescriptive  rights  of  drainage,  to  the  extent  to  which  they  law- 
fully existed  on  that  date.  The  Merrimack  and  Connecticut 
rivers  and  so  much  of  the  Concord  as  lies  within  the  city  of 
Lowell  are  also  exempt  from  this  rule.  Nor  can  any  person  save 
those  employed  in  getting  ice  or  hauKng  lumber  drive  a  horse  on 
any  pond  used  as  a  water  supply  for  domestic  purposes  by  a  city 
or  town.  Neither  is  bathing  permitted  in  any  such  pond.  The 
Legislature  seems  to  have  drawn  the  Kne  at  drinking-water. 
Water  dedicated  to  household  uses  is  protected,  within  certain 
limits  and  to  a  certain  degree,  by  a  speedy,  peremptory  and 
effectual  process.  Municipal  authorities  may  obtain  an  injunc- 
tion at  any  time,  from  any  justice  of  the  Supreme  or  Superior 
Court,  to  restrain  any  person  from  violating  the  80th  chapter  of 
the  General  Statutes,  which  we  have  recited  above.  But  aU 
other  waters  are  left  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  the  common  law. 
We  think  that  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  all  the  facts  will 
satisfy  any  unbiased  inquirer  that  under  this  kind  of  customary 
guardianship  of  no  one  in  particular  the  general  condition  of  our 
waters  has  suffered  a  steady  degradation,  or,  to  borrow  the  language 
of  the  State  Board  as  long  ago  as  1876,  "  any  defence  against  the 
impurities  which  so  conveniently  flow  into  our  waters  from  the 
settlements  and  works  on  their  banks  has  thus  far  been  merely 
nominal;  that  is,  the  law  can  be  used  to  prevent  a  nuisance  from 


GENERAL  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE  6 1 

continuing  to  be  poured  into  the  river,  but  it  is  not  used,  because 
the  process  is  too  slow,  cumbersome  and  expensive."  The  lapse 
of  nine  years  has  only  served  to  point  and  emphasize  this  com- 
mentary. The  growth  of  population,  the  spread  of  modem  re- 
finements of  living,  the  increase  in  industrial  establishments,  and 
all  the  indefinite  multipKcation  of  incidents  appertaining  to  a 
prosperous  and  progressive  community,  must  naturally  and 
perhaps  inevitably  tend  to  vitiate  the  water  of  its  rivers  and 
lakes.  But  even  if  a  certain  degree  of  taint  be  unavoidable,  there 
is  a  vast  amount  which  is  wanton  and  preventable.  A  cursory 
glance  at  the  report  of  Mr.  Clarke^  will  convince  anyone  that 
there  is  no  necessity  whatever  for  a  large  part  of  the  abuse  to 
which  our  water  courses  are  subjected.  It  is  a  question  of  time 
only,  and  that  not  a  long  time  either,  when,  if  we  hold  to  the  path 
we  are  traveling,  we  shall  find  ourselves  face  to  face  with  a 
state  of  things  as  intolerable  as  that  of  England  twenty-five 
years  ago,  when  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission  denounced  it 
as  an  "  evil  of  national  urgency  requiring  the  earliest  and  most 
serious  attention."  The  condition  of  many  of  its  important  and 
frequented  streams  had  become  so  filthy  and  disgusting,  that  a 
universal  protest  arose,  and  large  sums  of  money  had  to  be  ex- 
pended in  haste  to  mitigate  the  extremity  of  the  offence.  Mean- 
while untold  misery  and  mischief  had  been  inflicted.  Now 
preventive  measures  are  far  less  costly  and  much  more  effective 
than  remedial  expedients.  We  think  it  is  high  time  that  some 
steps  should  be  taken  here  to  arrest  the  progress  of  rivers  pollu- 
tion at  the  point  it  has  reached  today  in  Massachusetts,  and 
gradually  to  retrieve  some  portion,  at  least,  of  the  ground  we 
have  carelessly  yielded.  Impressed  with  this  conviction,  we  yet 
consider  it  impracticable  to  ask  for  a  summary  enforcement  of  the 
extreme  right  of  the  community  in  its  waters  now  for  the  first 
time.  Apart  from  technical  points  of  law,  and  taking  itupon broad, 
equitable  grounds,  it  would  be  felt  to  be  unfair  for  the  community 
suddenly  to  insist  upon  a  rigid  exaction  of  its  abstract  right  to 
clean  waters  after  so  many  years  of  License  and  neglect.  Even  if 
it  be  law  that  no  one  can  prescribe  for  a  public  nuisance,  it  does 

1  Eliot  C.  Clarke. 


62  STATE  SANITATION 

not  necessarily  follow  that  it  is  policy  to  abate  all  nuisances  forth- 
with. And  supposing  such  a  project  of  law  to  have  been  enacted, 
we  do  not  believe  that  the  statute  could  or  would  be  enforced. 
Certainly  the  existing  law  is  not,  then  why  should  one  so  much 
more  severe  ?  We  therefore  cast  about  a  good  deal  to  hit  upon 
some  principle  of  classification,  some  scheme  of  discrimination, 
or  even  a  mere  frame  of  fixed  regulations  to  guide  the  steps  of  a 
guardian  of  public  waters.  It  was  suggested  that  schedules  might 
be  made  of  streams  which  could  be  allowed  a  certain  kind  and 
amount  of  pollution,  to  be  carefully  defined,  either  in  general  or 
for  each  individual  case.  Certain  others  might  be  set  apart  and 
reserved  for  the  standard  purity  expected  for  drinking-water. 
While  possibly  a  few  might  be  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  at 
least  for  the  present.  It  was  held  to  be  reasonable  to  forbid  cer- 
tain more  dangerous  or  offensive  trades  from  seating  themselves 
in  future  at  or  near  the  fountain  heads  of  rivers  or  brooks.  It 
was  urged  that  there  would  be  no  hardship  in  compelling  a  new- 
comer, whose  labors  must  grievously  deteriorate  the  quality  of 
the  water,  to  go  below  the  industries  which  already  depended 
upon  the  water  as  they  were  getting  it,  and  could  not  endure 
without  suffering  any  additional  impairment  of  its  purity.  These 
expedients  and  many  Uke  them  were  canvassed  and  weighed  in 
turn,  but  to  all  there  seemed  to  be  grave  objections.  After  much 
consideration  it  was  decided  to  propound  a  plan  of  action  which 
seemed  to  fit  the  exigency  as  well  or  better  than  any  which 
occurred  to  us.  It  had  besides  the  strong  recommendation  of 
shaping  itself  in  exact  conformity  with  precedents  which  have 
stood  the  test  of  time  and  have  proved  themselves  to  be  valuable 
working  agencies.  In  the  year  1879  the  Legislature  intrusted  the 
care  of  "  the  lands,  flats,  shores  and  rights  in  tide-waters  belong- 
ing to  the  Commonwealth,"  and  the  supervision  of  "  all  its  tide- 
waters and  all  the  flats  and  lands  flowed  thereby,"  to  a  Board 
whom  it  empowered  "  to  prevent  and  remove  unauthorized  en- 
croachments "  or  whatever  "  in  any  way  injures  their  channels." 
Every  work  done  within  tide-water,  not  sanctioned  by  them  or 
authorized  by  the  General  Court,  where  a  Hcense  is  required,  is 
declared  to  be  a  nuisance,  and  the  Board  may  order  suits  on 


GENERAL  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE  63 

behalf  of  the  Commonwealth  to  prevent  it  or  stop  the  removal  of 
material  from  any  bar  or  breakwater  of  any  harbor.  This  legisla- 
tion is  strictly  in  line  with  that  we  offer.  It  is,  indeed,  almost 
identical  with  it.  Alter  its  wording  but  a  little  and  it  would  suit 
our  purpose  exactly.  Precisely  the  same  principle  which  enjoins 
a  watchful  care  over  the  exterior  waters  of  the  state  would  seem 
to  call  for  at  least  an  equal  solicitude  concerning  the  abuse  of  its 
interior  waters.  But  mindful  of  the  tenderness  with  which  Massa- 
chusetts has  always  treated  her  industrial  classes,  we  think  it 
would  be  wise  to  embrace  in  the  enactment  one  pecuKarly  char- 
acteristic feature  borrowed  from  the  act  estabUshing  a  Railroad 
Commission,  and  which  has  proved  strong  enough  to  enforce 
amply  all  the  rights  of  the  public  in  that  class  of  highways  called 
railroads.  This  distinctive  trait  is  the  use  of  advisory  as  dis- 
tinguished from  mandatory  power.  We  think  it  would  be  well, 
then,  for  the  Legislature  to  designate  some  one  or  more  persons 
to  look  after  the  public  interests  in  this  direction.  Let  these 
guardians  of  inland  waters  be  charged  to  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  actual  condition  of  all  waters  within  the  state  as  respects 
their  pollution  or  purity,  and  to  inform  themselves  particularly 
as  to  the  relation  which  that  condition  bears  to  the  health  and 
well-being  of  any  part  of  the  people  of  the  Commonwealth.  Let 
them  do  away,  as  far  as  possible,  with  all  remediable  pollution, 
and  use  every  means  in  their  power  to  prevent  further  vitiation. 
Let  them  make  it  their  business  to  advise  and  assist  cities  or 
towns  desiring  a  supply  of  water  or  a  system  of  sewerage.  They 
shall  put  themselves  at  the  disposal  of  manufactories  and  others 
using  rivers,  streams  or  ponds,  or  in  any  way  misusing  them,  to 
suggest  the  best  means  of  minimizing  the  amount  of  dirt  in  their 
efSuent,  and  to  experiment  upon  methods  of  reducing  or  avoiding 
pollution.  They  shall  warn  the  persistent  violator  of  all  reason- 
able regulation  in  the  management  of  water  of  the  consequences 
of  his  acts.  In  a  word,  it  shall  be  their  especial  function  to  guard 
the  public  interest  and  the  pubHc  health  in  its  relation  with  water, 
whether  pure  or  defiled,  with  the  ultimate  hope,  which  must  never 
be  abandoned,  that  sooner  or  later  ways  may  be  found  to  redeem 
and  preserve  all  the  waters  of  the  state.    We  propose  to  clothe 


64  STATE  SANITATION 

the  Board  with  no  other  power  than  the  power  to  examine,  advise 
and  report,  except  in  cases  of  violation  of  the  statutes.  Such 
cases,  if  persisted  in  after  notice,  are  to  be  referred  to  the  At- 
torney-General for  action.  Other  than  this,  its  decisions  must 
look  for  their  sanction  to  their  own  intrinsic  sense  and  soundness. 
Its  last  protest  against  wilful  and  obstinate  defilement  will  be  to 
the  General  Court.  To  that  tribunal  it  shall  report  all  the  facts, 
leaving  to  its  supreme  discretion  the  final  disposition  of  such 
offenders.  If  such  a  Board  be  able  to  commend  itself  by  its  con- 
duct to  the  approval  of  the  great  court  of  pubHc  opinion,  it  will 
have  no  difficulty,  we  think,  in  materially  reducing  the  disorders 
and  abuses  which  are  threatening  to  give  great  trouble  in  future 
if  not  speedily  checked.  If,  however,  we  err  in  this  expectation, 
and  more  drastic  measures  prove  indispensable,  the  mandate  of 
the  state  can  always  be  invoked  to  re-enforce  its  advice. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  well  to  explain,  in  order  to  avoid  mis- 
conception, that  we  do  not  regard  the  form  which  we  suggest  as 
very  material.  We  wish  it  understood  that  although  we  propose 
a  fresh  commission  to  build  the  Mystic  or  the  Charles  River 
sewers,  we  do  not  deny  that  they  can  very  possibly  be  as  well  done 
by  the  Governor  and  Council,  by  the  city  of  Boston,  or  some  other 
agency,  if  the  Legislature  prefer,  and  when  we  recommend  that 
the  prevention  of  rivers  pollution  be  assigned  to  a  Board,  we  do 
not  intend  to  prejudge  the  question  whether  that  Board  shall  be 
an  existing  Board  or  a  fresh  creation.  It  seems  to  us  compara- 
tively immaterial  by  what  instruments  our  ends  are  wrought, 
provided  only  the  work  be  done  economically  and  speedily,  and 
above  all,  be  done  well. 

John  Q.  Adams, 
Solomon  B.  Stebbins, 
Edmund  W.  Converse, 
Edward  D.  Hayden, 
Leverett  S.  Tuckerman. 
December  24,  1885. 


IX 

MICRO-ORGANISMS  IN  THE  AIR  OF  THE  BOSTON  CITY 

HOSPITAL 
By  Greenleaf  R.  Tucker,  S.B. 

[The  use  of  solid-culture  media  for  quantitative  bacteriological  investigations 
began  in  1881  with  the  work  of  Dr.  Koch.  During  the  next  few  years  various 
adaptations  of  it  were  made.  Professor  Sedgwick  and  Dr.  Tucker  studied  its  appli- 
cation to  the  determination  of  bacteria  in  the  air.  The  method  suggested  in  this 
paper  is  with  some  modifications  still  in  use.  The  original  paper  is  here  much 
abridged,  statistical  results  being  largely  omitted.  Reprinted  from  the  Twentieth 
Annual  Report,  1888,  p.  161.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

In  compliance  with  a  vote  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  which 
was  passed  in  March,  1888,  the  writer  of  the  following  paper  was 
requested  to  make  an  investigation  relative  to  the  quality  of  the 
air  of  hospital  wards,  which  should  have  for  its  special  objects  to 
determine  the  number  and  distribution  of  micro-organisms  in  the 
air  of  such  wards;  the  causes  which  affect  their  number  and  dis- 
tribution; and  as  far  as  possible  to  determine  their  character. 
A  study  of  the  germs  themselves  was  soon  found  to  be  imprac- 
ticable, and  it  was  thought  advisable  to  reserve  this  part  of  the 
subject  for  future  investigation.  Transfers  of  colonies  from  the 
air  of  the  wards,  to  the  number  of  about  two  hundred,  have  been 
made  and  preserved  for  this  purpose.  It  is  believed  that  these 
cultures  will  represent  most  of  the  forms  habitually  present  in  the 
air  of  these  buildings. 

The  experiments  to  be  described  began  in  November,  1888, 
and  were  continued  uninterruptedly  for  a  period  of  three  months. 
Some  regret  is  felt  that  a  portion  of  the  work  at  least  could  not  be 
conducted  under  the  conditions  of  weather  to  be  expected  at  that 
time  of  year.  The  winter  was  exceptionally  mild,  and  the  ground 
practically  free  from  snow. 

The  investigation  of  indoor  air  began  by  taking  samples  in 
the  afternoon,  between  two  and  three  o'clock;  the  time  being  so 
chosen  because  the  wards  are  then  in  their  normal  condition,  only 
such  work  being  done  as  the  necessities  of  the  sick  demand.  On 
Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday  and  Saturday  of  each  week,  friends 

6s 


66  STATE  SANITATION 

of  patients  are  admitted  from  2  to  3  p.m.,  usually  to  the  number 
of  two  to  three  hundred,  and  distribute  themselves  throughout 
the  various  wards,  the  number  of  visitors  in  each  ward  being 
often  equal  to  the  number  of  patients;  this  afforded  opportunity 
to  observe  the  effect  upon  the  air  of  increased  numbers  of  people 
over  those  habitually  present.  It  was  found  necessary  to  Hmit  the 
number  of  experiments  each  day  to  five,  including  the  outside 
air.  The  total  number  of  wards  being  eighteen,  four  or  five  days 
elapsed  before  a  return  could  be  made  to  a  given  point;  and  the 
entire  month  was  necessary  to  accumulate  sufficient  data  for 
each  ward,  from  which  to  draw  conclusions. 

During  December,  samples  were  taken  mornings,  generally 
between  eight  and  ten  o'clock,  the  wards  at  that  time  being  in  a 
more  or  less  disturbed  condition,  —  beds  are  made,  floors  swept, 
surgical  dressings  changed,  and  the  general  comfort  of  the  patients 
attended  to.  By  following  this  plan,  two  series  of  results  were 
obtained,  showing  the  condition  of  the  air  under  quiet  and  dis- 
turbing influences.  The  month  of  January  and  part  of  February 
were  devoted  to  special  investigation,  which  the  previous  work 
had  shown  to  be  necessary. 

Methods  employed  in  the  Quantitative  Determination 
OF  Micro-organisms  in  the  Air 

The  introduction  by  Koch  in  188 1  of  a  soKd-culture  medium 
for  the  study  of  micro-organisms  has  resulted  in  methods  by 
which  we  can  determine  with  facihty,  and  approximately,  if  not 
with  accuracy,  the  number  of  micro-organisms  in  the  air.  Koch 
himself  exposed  plates  coated  with  a  soHd  nutrient  gelatine,  upon 
which  aerial  microbes  settled,  and  could  be  counted  after  develop- 
ment. Hesse,  however,  was  the  first  to  apply  this  principle 
quantitatively  to  investigations  of  the  air,  and  in  1883  pubHshed 
the  well-known  method  bearing  his  name.  Petrie,  in  Germany, 
and  Frankland,  in  England,  have  proposed  methods,  which,  while 
retaining  the  soHd-culture  medium  of  Koch,  differ  essentially 
from  the  method  of  Hesse  and  from  each  other,  in  detail.  In  this 
country,  also,  some  new  methods  of  culture  have  been  practiced 
by  the  writer,  in  conjunction  with  Professor  Sedgwick,  in  a  series 


INVESTIGATIONS  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS  67 

of  investigations  conducted  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology. 

Hesse's  Method 

Hesse  makes  use  of  the  fact  previously  ascertained,  —  that 
micro-organisms  rapidly  settle  out  in  a  quiet  atmosphere.  He 
employs  a  long  glass  tube  of  large  bore,  coated  inside  with  steri- 
lized nutrient  gelatine.  The  tube  is  fastened  to  a  photographic 
tripod  in  a  horizontal  position,  and,  by  a  suitable  connection  with 
two  aspirator-bottles,  a  slow  current  of  air  (one  Liter  in  three 
minutes)  is  drawn  through  the  tube.  The  germs  are  all  supposed 
to  settle  out  during  the  passage  of  the  air  through  the  tube,  and 
remain  fixed  by  the  moist,  soHd  gelatine,  where  they  become 
visible  after  several  days  as  isolated  colonies. 

Frankland's  Method 

This  method  consists  in  aspirating  a  known  volume  of  air 
through  a  glass  tube  containing  two  sterile  plugs  of  glass-wool 
alone,  or  glass-wool  and  fine  sugar-powder;  after  which  the  germ- 
laden  filter  is  transferred  to  a  flask  containing  melted  steriHzed 
nutrient  gelatine,  the  two  thoroughly  shaken  together,  and  sohdi- 
fied  upon  the  sides  of  the  flask  by  cooling,  where  the  colonies 
which  develop  can  be  counted. 

Petrie's  Method 

Petrie  uses  fine  sand  as  a  filter,  packed  in  a  small  glass  tube, 
and  held  in  place  by  disks  of  wire  gauze.  After  drawing  through 
sufficient  air  by  means  of  an  air  pump,  the  sand,  with  its  occluded 
germs,  is  poured  into  several  small  double  dishes  of  glass,  con- 
taining nutrient  gelatine,  the  object  being  to  distribute  the  sand 
and  germs  over  a  considerable  surface,  so  that  the  colonies  may 
be  more  readily  counted. 

The  method  employed  in  the  present  investigation  was  first 
used  by  the  writer,  in  association  with  Professor  Sedgwick,^  in  a 

^  The  complete  paper  was  presented  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Washington,  April  18,  1888,  under  the  title,  "  A  New  Method  for  the  Biological 
Examination  of  Air:  with  a  Description  of  an  Aercbioscope." 


68  STATE  SANITATION 

series  of  experiments  in  1887,  and  will  be  described  somewhat  in 
detail. 

The  actual  requirements  of  a  quantitative  method  for  the  bac- 
teriological examination  of  air,  briefly  stated,  are  as  follows:  — 

First.  —  A  means  of  collecting  and  accurately  measuring  the  volume  of 
air  to  be  examined. 

Second.  —  A  suitable  filtering  medium  for  holding  back  the  micro-organ- 
isms contained  in  the  air. 

Third.  —  A  soHd-culture  medium,  in  which  the  germ-laden  filter  can  be 
diffused,  and  where,  on  cooling  and  incubating  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time, 
the  germs  may  develop  and  be  counted  as  isolated  colonies. 

The  apparatus  consists  essentially  of  three  parts:  (i)  A  glass 
tube  of  special  form,  to  which  the  name  of  aerobioscope  has  been 
given;  (2)  a  stout  copper  cyhnder  of  about  sixteen  hters  capacity, 
provided  with  a  vacuum  gauge;  (3)  an  air  pump.  The  aerobi- 
oscope through  which  the  air  is  aspirated  is  six  inches  long,  and 
one  and  three-quarters  inches  in  diameter  at  its  expanded  part; 
the  upper  end  of  it  is  narrowed  somewhat  to  a  neck  one  inch  in 
diameter  and  one  inch  long.  To  the  lower  end  is  fused  a  piece 
of  glass  tubing  six  inches  long  and  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 
bore,  in  which  to  place  the  filtering  material. 

Preparation  of  the  aerobioscope :  Upon  the  narrow  part  of  the 
tube,  two  inches  from  the  lower  end,  a  slight  mark  is  made  with  a 
file,  and  a  Httle  roll  of  brass  gauze  is  inserted,  which  serves  as  a 
stop  for  the  filter  to  be  placed  above  it.  Beneath  the  gauze  stop 
is  placed  a  small  plug  of  cotton  wool,  and  the  open  ends  are  then 
plugged  with  cotton  wool;  the  tube  is  now  placed  in  a  sterilizer, 
and  subjected  to  a  heat  of  at  least  150°  C.  for  one  or  two  hours. 
When  cool,  the  non-sterilized  cotton-wool  plug  is  carefully  re- 
moved from  the  neck,  and  sterilized  No.  50  granulated  sugar  is 
poured  in,  until  it  just  fills  the  four  inches  of  narrow  tube  above 
the  gauze  stop.  This  column  of  sugar  weighs  one  gram  and  is 
the  filtering  material  employed  to  engage  and  retain  the  micro- 
organisms. The  cotton-wool  plug  being  replaced,  the  tube  is 
again  placed  in  the  sterilizer,  and  re-sterilized  for  several  hours 
at  120°  C. 


INVESTIGATIONS  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS 


69 


STERILIZED 

COTTON   WOOL 

PLUG 


Taking  the  air  sample :  In  order  to  measure  the  amount  of  air 
used,  the  value  of  each  degree  on  the  vacuum  gauge  is  determined 
in  terms  of  air,  by  means  of  an  air 
meter,  or  by  calculation  from  the 
known  capacity  of  the  cylinder. 
This  fact  ascertained,  the  negative 
pressure  indicated  by  the  needle  on 
exhausting  the  cylinder  shows  the 
volume  of  air  which  must  pass  into 
it  to  fill  the  vacuum.  By  means 
of  the  air  pump,  one  exhausts  the 
cylinder  until  the  needle  reaches 
the  mark  corresponding  to  the 
amount  of  air  required.  A  steril- 
ized aerobioscope  is  attached  to  the 
cylinder,  in  an  upright  position,  by 
means  of  a  clamp;  and,  to  estab- 
lish communication  between  the 
two,  they  are  joined  together  by 
means  of  a  rubber  tube  attached  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  aerobioscope 
and  to  a  stop-cock  on  the  cylinder. 
For  removing  and  protecting  the 
sterilized  cotton-wool  plug  while 
the  air  is  being  drawn  through  the 
tube,  a  very  simple  device  is  used. 
A  glass  shield  with  a  neck  slightly 
larger  than  the  neck  of  the  aero- 
bioscope, and  bearing  a  rubber 
finger-cot,  is  pushed  down  over  the 
cotton-wool  plug;  when,  by  com- 
pressing the  rubber,  the  plug  can 
be  removed  (inside  the  shield),  and 
remains  suspended  there.  The 
plug  removed^  the  cock  is  opened, 
when  air  will  pass  through  the  aerobioscope,  leaving  its  germs 
in  the  sterilized  sugar  filter. 


STERILIZED 

GRANULATED 

SUGAR 

WIRE  GAUZE     

STOP         


COTTON  WOOL- 


COTTON  WOOL  PLUG 


Fig. 


Aerobioscope 


70 


STATE  SANITATION 


Cultivation  of  the  germs:  The  aerobioscope,  after  the  air  has 
been  drawn  through,  is  taken  to  the  culture  room  for  further 
treatment.  The  tube  being  held  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position, 
the  sugar  (with  the  contained  germs)  is  made  to  run  into  the  body 
of  the  tube,  by  a  gentle  tapping.  Melted  steriUzed  nutrient 
gelatine  (25  c.c.)  is  now  added,  under  proper  precautions,  and 


A    AEROBIOSCOPE 
B    AIR  CYLINDER 
C    VACUUM   GAUGE 
D    AIR    PUMP 
E    GLASS  SHIELD 


Fig.  2.    Apparatus  for  Determining  the  Number  of  Bacteria  m  Am 

the  neck  closed  with  a  perforated  sterilized  rubber  stopper, 
plugged  with  cotton  wool.  On  rotating  the  tube,  the  sugar  all 
dissolves  in  the  gelatine,  leaving  the  germs  uniformly  distributed 
through  it.  The  gelatine  is  now  congealed  in  an  even  fihn  upon 
the  inside  of  the  tube,  where,  after  four  or  five  days,  the  colonies 
will  develop,  and  can  be  counted  by  the  aid  of  squares  engraved 
upon  the  glass. 
The  illustration  above  shows  the  apparatus  set  up  ready  for  use. 


INVESTIGATIONS  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS 


71 


This  method  has  several  advantages  not  to  be  found  in  other 
methods.  In  the  first  place,  the  use  of  a  vacuum  cylinder  permits 
a  known  volume  of  air  to  be  aspirated  with  great  ease,  and  the 
rate  of  flow  through  the  filter  is  controlled  to  a  nicety.  The 
advantage  of  a  soluble  filter  (sterilized  granulated  sugar),  leaving 
only  the  germs  imbedded  in  the  gelatine,  cannot  be  overestimated; 
for  any  insoluble  substances  seriously  interfere  with  the  counting. 
Again,  the  aerobioscope,  quite  apart  from  the  filter,  constitutes 
an  important  advance,  since  it  obviates  the  necessity  of  transfer- 
ring the  filter  (and  contained  germs) ,  thereby  avoiding  accidental 
loss  or  gain  of  germs.  The  whole  apparatus  is  portable,  and 
the  method,  as  compared  with  others,  is  exceedingly  rapid  of 
execution. 

Outside  Air 

In  order  to  have  data  for  comparison  with  the  work  done  in- 
doors, the  outside  air  was  examined  nearly  every  day  during  this 
investigation.  The  results  are  of  some  value  in  themselves,  as 
showing  the  condition  of  the  air  of  Boston  in  a  rather  secluded 
place,  but  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  its  trafiic. 

The  samples  were  all  taken  at  the  same  place,  at  the  foot  of  the 
surgical  steps,  four  feet  from  the  ground,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
hospital,  except  on  rainy  days,  when  the  apparatus  was  moved 
under  the  steps,  to  avoid  annoyance  from  the  rain.  The  direction 
and  strength  of  the  wind,  temperature,  time  of  day,  and  any  dis- 
turbing influences  likely  to  affect  the  results,  were  observed.  The 
ground  was  free  from  snow  and  the  weather  was  mild  throughout, 
while  the  prevaihng  winds  were  strong.  The  general  averages  for 
the  months  of  November  and  December,  1888,  and  January, 
1889,  are  shown  in  the  following  table:  — 

Table  4 


Date 


Number  of 
Experiments 


Average 

Number  of 

Bacteria 


Average 

Number  of 

Moulds 


Ratio  of 

Bacteria  to 

Moulds 


November,  1888 
December,  1888 . 
January,  1889  .  . 


19 

22 

15 


10.4 

14-5 
13.2 


6.8 
5-6 
3-5 


1-5 
2.6 

3-8 


All  figures  representing  bacteria  and  moulds  are  for  lo  liters  of  air. 


72 


STATE  SANITATION 


The  average  numbers  of  bacteria  are  thus  seen  to  be  about  the 
same  for  the  three  months,  and  representing,  as  they  do,  less  than 
two  per  liter  of  air,  must  be  considered  small.  Carnelly  {Phil. 
Trans,  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  vol.  178)  found  recently 
in  the  town  of  Dundee,  in  quiet  places,  as  a  mean  of  fourteen 
experiments,  less  than  one  bacterium  per  Kter  of  air;  while,  in 
certain  streets  where  the  ratio  of  bacteria  to  moulds  was  very 
high,  the  total  number  of  organisms  was  17.5  per  Hter  of  air. 

A  comparison  between  the  numbers  of  organisms  found  on 
clear  and  on  rainy  days  is  shown  in  the  next  table: — 

Table  q 


November 

December 

January 

Condition 

of 
Weather 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Bacteria 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Mouldb 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Bacteria 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Moulds 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Bacteria 

Aver- 
age 
No.  of 
Moulds 

Rain    

Clear 

5 
14 

7.6 
11.4 

7-8 
6.4 

3 
18 

9-3 
15.0 

6.3 

5-4 

9 

2-5 

19.0 

3-0 
3-5 

The  number  of  bacteria  present  in  the  air  on  clear  days  is 
greater  than  on  rainy  days,  but  the  number  of  moulds  remains  the 
same;  i.  e.,  rain  washes  out  bacteria  from  the  air,  but  does  not 

Table  6 


November 

December 

January 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Bacteria 

Moulds 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Bacteria 

Moulds 

No.  of 
Deter- 
mina- 
tions 

Bacteria 

Moulds 

Wind  slight  .  .  . 
Wind  strong  . . 

2 
IS 

2-S 
II.O 

18.0 
4-3 

6 
IS 

12 
IS 

9-3 
4.4 

2 
10 

4-S 
17.0 

3 
4 

remove  moulds.  Both  bacteria  and  moulds  were  more  numerous 
on  rainy  days  than  was  expected;  and  this  is  perhaps  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  the  experiments  were  made  under  some  stone 
steps,  near  a  basement  door  frequently  opened  by  employees. 


INVESTIGATIONS  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS  73 

No  deductions  could  be  drawn  from  the  effect  of  the  direction 
of  the  wind  upon  the  micro-organisms,  owing  to  the  position  of 
the  buildings.  The  quarter  from  which  the  wind  blew  was  taken 
from  a  neighboring  weather-vane;  but  the  direction,  as  felt  by 
the  observer,  seldom  coincided,  being  generally  either  easterly  or 
westerly.  The  effect  of  the  strength  of  the  wind  is,  however, 
worthy  of  notice,  being  to  increase  the  numbers  of  bacteria. 

Conclusions 

The  results  obtained  from  buildings  of  the  hospital  group 
occupied  by  employees,  investigated  for  the  sake  of  comparison 
with  the  wards,  taken  together  with  the  results  furnished  by  out- 
side air,  furnish  abundant  proof  that  the  air  of  the  hospital  is 
remarkably  free  from  micro-organisms.  Whether  the  numbers 
found  are  greater  or  less  than  would  be  found  in  similar  institu- 
tions is  not  known.  So  far  as  I  am  famihar  with  the  work  of 
other  investigators  in  this  field,  the  results  show  that  hospitals  of 
this  class,  as  compared  with  other  buildings,  will  take  first  rank 
in  the  freedom  of  their  air  from  micro-organisms. 

This  is  as  it  should  be:  bacteria,  in  a  way,  represent  so  much 
dirt.  In  a  well-managed  hospital,  one  has  an  approach  to  an  ideal 
degree  of  cleanhness,  and  in  no  class  of  buildings  is  the  same  care 
taken  to  secure  freedom  from  dirt  as  is  taken  in  such  a  hospital. 
Undoubtedly,  the  systematic,  thorough  renovation  which  is  going 
on  continually  in  the  hospital  is  of  great  importance  in  removing 
accumulations  of  germs,  which  must  inevitably  occur  in  the  wear 
and  tear  of  a  building.  This  hospital  is  particularly  fortunate  in 
this  respect;  with  its  large  tent  service,  wards  in  turn  can  be 
vacated  during  the  summer  months,  and  put  in  thorough  repair, 
to  an  extent  not  otherwise  possible. 

In  this  connection,  it  will  be  interesting  to  reproduce  some 
valuable  tables  prepared  by  Professor  Thomas  Carnelly  and  his 
colleagues,^  showing  the  number  of  micro-organisms  in  the  air  of 
clean  and  unclean  buildings  in  Dundee. 

^  I  take  great  pleasure  in  referring  the  reader  interested  in  this  subject  to  the 
work  of  Carnelly,  it  being  the  first  attempt,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  to  systematically 
determine  the  number  of  micro-organisms  in  the  air  of  buildings. 


74  STATE  SANITATION 

I  ABLE    7  Bacteria  in 

lo  Liters  of  Air 

One-roomed  houses,  dean i8o 

"                 "       dirty 410 

"                 "        dirtier 490 

"                 "       very  dirty 930 

Naturally  ventilated  schools,  cleaner 910 

"                 "               "        average  cleanliness 1,250 

"                 "                "        dirtier 1,980 

Mechanically  ventilated  schools,  cleanest 30 

«                "        clean 160 

"                    "               "        less  clean 300 

These  results  leave  no  doubt  that  the  cleanliness  of  rooms  and 
of  persons  also  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  preventing  ac- 
cumulations of  micro-organisms.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
numbers  found  in  mechanically  ventilated  schools  are  far  less 
than  for  those  ventilated  naturally;  but  the  results  as  a  whole, 
both  in  schools  and  dwelling-houses,  are  enormous,  as  compared 
with  those  obtained  in  this  hospital.  On  the  other  hand,  Carnelly 
found  in  the  wards  of  the  Dundee  Royal  Infirmary,  between  4 
and  5  o'clock  p.m.,  from  10  to  20  bacteria.  Neumann  made 
thirty-five  experiments  by  Hesse's  method.  At  different  eleva- 
tions, from  1.40  to  3.26  meters,  about  the  same  number  of 
organisms  were  found.  In  the  morning,  after  sweeping,  10  Hters 
of  air  gave  from  80  to  140  bacteria,  while  four  consecutive  deter- 
minations at  the  same  height  showed  a  gradual  decrease;  the  last 
examination,  at  8  p.m.,  giving  from  4  to  10  bacteria. 

The  results  obtained  in  both  the  above  hospitals  are  in  perfect 
accord  with  those  obtained  in  this  investigation. 

The  extent  of  vitiation  which  the  air  of  dwelling-houses  may 
reach  is  further  shown  by  determinations  made  by  Carnelly,  on 
one,  two  and  four-roomed  houses,  between  12.30  and  4.30  a.m. 

Bacteria  Moulds 

One-roomed  houses    580         1 2 

Two-roomed  houses 430         22 

Four-roomed  houses,  and  more 160         10 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  air  of  the  Boston  City  Hospital 
is  practically  free  from  bacteria  at  the  hour  of  midnight,  the  above 
results,  representing  the  condition  of  the  air  breathed  by  human 


INVESTIGATIONS  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS  75 

beings,  is  certainly  startling,  and  goes  far  to  show  the  value  of  the 
information  furnished  by  such  determinations.  The  atmosphere 
of  a  building  vitiated  by  micro-organisms  can  be  so  readily 
brought  at  least  to  a  moderate  state  of  purity,  by  a  proper  degree 
of  cleanhness  and  oversight,  that  there  is  no  legitimate  reason 
why  the  air  of  public  buildings  should  reach  the  condition  of 
vitiation  shown  by  Carnelly's  experiments,  in  certain  buildings 
in  Dundee. 

In  any  comparison  of  the  number  of  micro-organisms  found  in 
the  air  of  a  hospital  with  those  of  other  buildings,  allowance  must 
of  course  be  made  for  the  fact  that  a  very  small  nutnber  of  organ- 
isms found  in  hospital  air,  if  pathogenic,  might  be  more  dangerous 
than  large  numbers  of  non-pathogenic  forms  found  elsewhere. 
The  great  majority  of  micro-organisms  found  in  air  are  probably 
harmless;  but  their  functions  as  yet  are  so  imperfectly  under- 
stood, that  it  would  seem  unwise  to  consider  them  entirely  harm- 
less. Many  of  them  evince  a  power  in  the  decomposition  of  the 
various  culture  media,  which  is  suggestive  of  what  might  happen 
in  or  upon  the  human  system,  should  they  find  there  a  suitable 
nidus  for  development.  Although  no  attempt  was  made  in  this 
investigation,  except  in  a  very  general  way,  to  determine  the 
character  of  the  germs  present,  it  was  found  that  the  same  species 
which  occurred  in  the  outside  air  were  met  with  in  the  hospital; 
but  certain  species  were  met  with  in  the  hospital  that  were  not 
found  in  outside  air.  In  the  ward  devoted  to  diphtheria,  species 
were  always  fewer  in  number  than  elsewhere,  and  the  colonies 
were  not  unlike  those  obtained  from  the  material  furnished  by  the 
patients  themselves,  although  no  proof  of  their  identity  was 
obtained.  The  presence  of  pathogenic  bacteria  has  frequently 
been  demonstrated  in  the  air  of  hospital  wards;  for  example, 
Cornet,  of  Koch's  Hygienic  Institute,  found  bacilH  tuberculosis 
in  fifteen  out  of  twenty-one  wards  in  seven  hospitals  in  Berlin,  and 
out  of  ninety-four  animals  inoculated,  twenty  died  of  tuber- 
culosis. Von  Eiselsberg  in  an  erysipelas  room  of  the  hospital 
found  erysipelas  cocci;  also,  in  a  surgical  ward,  where  wounds 
were  treated  under  aseptic  precautions,  the  presence  of  staphylo- 
coccus pyogenes  aureus  was  demonstrated.    Emmerich  not  only 


76  STATE  SANITATION 

found  erysipelas  cocci  in  the  air  of  an  old  dissecting  room,  but 
also  in  the  plastering  and  walls  and  ceiling. 

In  this  connection,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  ordinary 
methods  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  germs  of  the  air  would 
fail  to  reveal  the  presence  of  certain  pathogenic  bacteria,  as,  for 
example,  bacilli  tuberculosis ;  such  forms,  however,  are  not  diffi- 
cult to  determine  by  special  means.  Pathogenic  bacteria  are  as 
likely  to  exist  in  this  hospital  as  in  any  other,  and  probably  do 
exist;  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  general  health  of  em- 
ployees is  excellent,  that  contagious  diseases  are  seldom  con- 
tracted by  them,  or  by  patients  themselves,  although  isolated 
cases  occasionally  occur. 

The  importance  of  obtaining  definite  information  regarding 
the  dangerous  or  innocuous  character  of  micro-organisms  found 
in  the  atmosphere  is  evident;  but,  until  methods  are  so  amplified 
that  species  can  be  identified  with  a  greater  degree  of  certainty 
and  far  less  expenditure  of  time  than  at  present,  we  must  be  con- 
tent with  a  determination  of  the  number  and  distribution  of 
bacteria  in  the  air  of  buildings. 

Carnelly  has  proposed  a  standard  for  the  air  of  dwellings  and 
schools;  i.  e.,  twenty  micro-organisms  per  liter,  or  two  hundred 
per  ten  liters  (excess  over  outside  air),  —  numbers  so  greatly  in 
excess  of  all  results  obtained  in  this  hospital  as  to  make  evident 
the  necessity  of  standards  for  various  classes  of  buildings. 

The  air  of  this  hospital  compares  favorably  with  the  external 
air.  In  the  absence,  then,  of  a  standard  of  purity  for  hospital  air, 
it  would  not  be  unreasonable  to  require  that  the  number  of  micro- 
organisms in  the  air  of  a  ward  should  but  slightly  exceed  the 
numbers  found  in  outside  air. 


X 


POLLUTION  OF  ICE  SUPPLIES 

[In  this  report  we  see  the  joint  application  of  sanitary  chemistry  and  bacteri- 
ology to  a  practical  public  health  problem.  Although  a  short  report  it  is  typical  of 
the  manner  in  which  such  questions  have  been  answered  by  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health,  that  is,  by  securing  the  facts  in  the  case,  using  the  best 
available  methods  of  procedure.  At  the  time  this  report  was  written  relatively  little 
was  known  about  the  effect  of  freezing  on  the  quality  of  ice,  or  the  relation  between 
ice  and  the  public  health.    Twenty-first  Annual  Report,  1889,  p.  143. —  G.  C.  W.] 

By  chapter  84  of  the  Resolves  of  1888,  the  General  Court 
directed  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  "  make  a  special  investiga- 
tion with  reference  to  the  pollution  of  ponds,  lakes,  streams  or 
other  bodies  of  water  used  as  ice  suppHes  in  this  State,  especially 
with  reference  to  the  effect  of  such  pollution  upon  the  health- 
fulness  of  such  ice  for  domestic  use." 

In  accordance  with  this  direction,  the  State  Board  of  Health 
sent  to  every  city  and  town  in  the  state  printed  circulars,  —  to 
the  local  boards  of  health,  to  physicians,  or  to  persons  known  to 
have  an  interest  in  the  subject,  asking  their  co-operation  and  their 
replies  to  the  following  questions :  — 

1 .  Names  of  companies,  firms  or  individuals  who  cut  or  sell  ice  in  your 
city  or  town,  and  sources  from  which  such  ice  is  obtained. 

2.  What  contaminating  causes,  if  any,  pollute  the  sources  from  which 
ice  is  cut  ? 

3.  Have  any  cases  of  illness  come  to  your  knowledge  from  the  use  of 
ice  cut  from  such  sources  ? 

4.  What  remedies  do  you  suggest  for  the  prevention  of  such  pollution  ? 

In  the  responses  to  these  circulars  from  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  cities  and  towns,  sources  of  pollution  were  noted  in  thirty. 
The  answers  to  the  third  question  were  generally,  "  No."  A  few 
cases  were,  however,  noted,  where  the  ice  supply  was  suspected 
of  being  the  cause  of  illness,  but  none  appeared  to  be  so  definitely 
connected  with  this  cause  as  to  give  promise  of  additional 
knowledge  if  investigated  further. 


78 


STATE  SANITATION 


From  the  thirty  sources  where  contaminating  causes  of  pollu- 
tion were  noted  there  were  selected  twelve  which  appeared  to  be 
the  most  polluted;  and  in  October,  1888,  samples  of  the  water 
from  each  of  these  sources  as  it  then  existed,  and  samples  of  the 
ice  in  ice  houses  adjacent,  were  examined,  with  the  following 
average  result :  — 

Table  8 

Average  or  Analyses  of  Water  and  of  Ice  from  Polluted  Sources 
IN  October,  1888 

(Parts  per  100,000) 


Color 

Loss 
on  Ig- 
nition 

FLxed 
Re- 
sidue 

Ammonia 

Chlo- 
rine 

Nitrates 

Nitrites 

Bac- 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

teria 

Water  .... 

Ice 

Per  cent  . . 

0.24 
0.00 

1.65 

0.24 

15.00 

6.94 

1. 00 

14.00 

0,0143 

0.0022 

15.0000 

0.0206 

0.0027 

13.0000 

1. 18 
O.OI 

0.0343 

0.0045 

13.0000 

0.0009 

0.00005 

6.0000 

138 

One  sample  of  ice  from  an  unpolluted  source  gave  the  following: 


0.0 

0.20 

0.20 

0.0000 

0.0000 

0.00 

0.0050 

0.0000 

The  samples  of  ice  from  the  twelve  most  polluted  sources, 
obtained  from  ice  houses  in  October,  when  compared  with  the 
waters  of  the  various  ponds,  as  they  were  in  October,  showed 
that  the  color  and  salt  had  been  removed,  and  that  all  but 
about  thirteen  per  cent  of  the  other  impurities  of  the  water,  as 
shown  by  chemical  analyses,  had  been  removed. 

The  number  of  bacteria  in  the  ice  averaged  138,  being  increased 
by  one  sample  of  snow  ice  that  contained  1,246  per  cubic  centi- 
meter, while  the  clear  part  of  the  same  cake  had  but  6.  Two 
samples  had  none;  three  had  less  than  10;  three  others  had 
between  10  and  100,  and  two  had  199  and  433  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter. 

A  single  sample  of  clear  ice  from  an  unpolluted  source  was  found 
to  be  nearly  as  free  from  organic  impurities  as  distilled  water. 


POLLUTION  OF  ICE  SUPPLIES  79 

These  preliminary  examinations  indicated,  as  had  been  found 
by  Dr.  T.  M.  Prudden/  in  examining  Hudson  River  ice,  that 
different  parts  of  a  cake  of  ice  may  differ  much  in  quahty;  and 
it  was  concluded  to  follow  Dr.  Prudden's  method  of  making 
separate  examinations  of  transparent  and  of  snow  ice.  This 
classification  was  used  in  examinations  of  the  ice  crop  of  1888-89. 
Experiments  were  planned  by  which  the  quahties  of  ice  found 
under  differing  circumstances  could  be  determined;  but  the  short 
season  in  which  ice  formed,  —  Hmited  to  the  latter  part  of 
February  and  the  first  of  March  in  1889,  —  and  the  almost  entire 
failure  of  the  ice  crop  in  1889-90,  have  prevented  the  carrying 
out  of  these  investigations;  so  that  the  Board,  while  presenting 
the  facts  that  have  been  obtained  and  some  of  the  conclusions  to 
which  these  lead,  is  unable  to  present  demonstrations  of  all  of  the 
interesting  problems  that  enter  the  investigation  required  by  the 
resolve. 

As  has  been  stated,  examinations  were  first  made  of  water  and 
ice  from  the  twelve  sources  which  by  the  reports  appeared  to  be 
those  most  polluted.  On  continuing  the  investigation  other 
sources  were  included,  making  in  all  fifty-eight  locaHties,  some  of 
which  were  from  excellent  water. 

The  results  are  all  included  in  the  tables  given  below.  In  these 
tables  are  given  chemical  analyses  of  76  samples  of  water  and  236 
samples  of  ice.  Most  of  the  samples  were  also  examined  for 
microscopic  organisms  and  for  bacteria. 

In  tabulating  the  results  of  microscopical  examinations,  the 
figures  represent  the  number  of  thousands  of  organisms  in  200 
cubic  centimeters  of  water  or  of  ice.  The  smallest  figure  given  is 
0.1,  which  expresses  100  organisms  in  200  c.c.  of  water  or  of  ice; 
where  the  number  observed  was  less  than  100,  they  are  said  to  be 
"  present." 

The  figures  under  bacteria  express  the  actual  number  found  in 
one  cubic  centimeter  of  the  water  or  ice. 

The  number  of  bacteria  was  found  to  vary  much  in  different 
parts  of  a  cake  of  ice.    The  division  adopted  in  the  first  season 

1  "  On  Bacteria  in  Ice  and  their  Relations  to  Disease,  with  Special  Reference  to 
the  Ice  Supply  of  New  York  City."  By  T.  Mitchell  Prudden,  M.D.  New  York, 
1887.     The  Medical  Record,  Vol.  31,  Nos.  13,  14. 


8o  STATE  SANITATION 

into  snow  ice  and  transparent  ice  made  one  important  distinction, 
but  others  were  found  necessary;  and  in  the  second  season  three 
divisions  were  made;  viz.,  snow  ice,  bubbly  ice  and  clear  ice,  also 
top  ice  and  bottom  ice ;  and  in  the  tables  the  remarks  at  the  right 
of  the  columns  often  indicate  that  the  chemical  analysis  was  made 
from  snow  ice  or  from  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  cake,  while  the 
columns  for  bacteria  show  that  two  or  more  samples  from  the 
same  part  of  the  cake  were  examined,  because  there  were  portions 
of  clear  ice  and  of  bubbly  ice  in  each. 

In  the  earHer  examinations,  when  all  of  the  samples  were  in- 
cluded in  snow  ice  and  transparent  ice,  the  latter  included  much 
that  was  bubbly;  and,  when  clear  and  bubbly  ice  took  the  place 
of  transparent,  the  clear  ice  included  some  which  was  somewhat 
bubbly.  If  the  ice  crop  of  the  present  season  had  not  failed, 
the  Board  would  have  made  other  distinctions  to  include  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  ice  is  formed. 

From  the  examinations  that  have  been  made,  it  appears  prob- 
able that,  when  ice  first  forms  on  the  surface  of  a  pond  or  river, 
a  considerable  part  of  the  impurity  in  the  water  near  the  surface 
is  entangled  in  the  first  inch  or  less  in  depth,  and  that  the  ice  that 
forms  below  this  first  inch  contains  but  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the  impurities  of  the  water.  If  snow  falls  upon  the  thin  ice,  caus- 
ing it  to  sink,  so  that  water  from  below  saturates  the  snow,  it  will 
freeze  without  purification;  or,  if  rain  falls  upon  the  snow  and 
freezes,  the  ice  thus  formed  contains  the  impurities  of  the  snow 
and  of  the  rain  water,  and  whatever  else  may  have  settled  out  of 
the  air.  The  method,  often  pursued,  of  flooding  the  ice  of  a  pond 
or  river,  by  cutting  holes  through  it,  gives  a  layer  of  ice  as  impure 
as  the  water  of  which  it  is  formed. 

From  all  of  the  analyses  of  water  and  of  ice  taken  at  the  same 
time,  so  that  they  can  be  fairly  compared,  twelve  have  been 
selected  in  which  the  sum  of  ammonias  in  the  water  indicated  the 
greatest  pollution,  and  the  principal  results  of  analyses  are  given 
in  the  following  table :  — 


POLLUTION  OF  ICE  SUPPLIES 


8i 


Table  9 


MlLLBUEY.  —  BlACKSTONE   RlVER 
(Parts  per  100,000) 


Color 

Residue  on 
Evaporation 

Ammonia 

Chlo- 
rine 

Nitrogen 
as 

Bacteria 
per  c.c. 

Loss 
on  Ig- 
nition 

Fixed 
Residue 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

Water 
or  Ice 

Snow 
Ice 

Water 

Snow  ice .  .  . 

Ice 

%  Snow  ice. 
%  Ice 

0.0 
0.0 

3.00 
1.70 
1. 10 

57 
37 

11.30 
2.90 

2-15 
26 

19 

.1680 

.0448 

.0252 

27 

IS 

.0440 

.0306 

.0176 

70 

40 

0.74 
O.IO 
O.IO 

14 
14 

.0150 
.C020 
.0050 

33 

.0018 

.0003 

.0003 

17 

17 

3762 
241 
6 

1586 
42 

Water . 
Ice .  .  . 


Per  cent. 


NORTHBRIDGE.  —  POND  FeD  BY  BlACKSTONE  RiVER 


0-3 

.0600 

.0370 

0.50 

.0200 

.0006 

74 

0.0 

1.65 

0.8s 

.0006 

.0030 

O.OI 

.0030 

.0001 

43 

I 

8 

2 

IS 

17 

60 

Lowell.  —  Black  Brook 


Water 

Snow  ice .  .  . 

Ice 

%  Snow  ice . 
%  Ice 

Water 

Ice 

Per  cent. . .  . 


0.0 

.0686 

.0142 

0.40 

.0600 

.0003 

107 

0.0 

1.40 

2.50 

.0184 

.0128 

0.04 

.0060 

.0001 

0.0 

o-SS 

0.4s 

.0036 

.0040 

O.OI 

.0050 

.0000 

3 

27 

90 

10 

10 

33 

5 

28 

2 

8 

0 

3 

39 

37 


Jamaica  Pond 


0.05 

.0120 

.0664 

0.86 

.0450 

.0002 

147 

0.00 

0-35 

1. 10 

.0034 

.0060 

0.00 

.0040 

.0001 

I 

28 

9 

0 

9 

50 

I 

Worcester.  —  Crescent  Street  Pond 


Water 

Snow  ice  . . 

Ice 

%  Snow  ice 
%  Ice 


o.is 

•0356 

•0356 

0.70 

.0850 

.0007 

1200 

0.00 

.0046 

.0094 

0.03 

0.00 

0.45 

1. 10 

.0006 
13 

.0026 
26 

O.OI 

4 

.0060 

.0000 

16 

2 

7 

I 

7 

0 

I 

58 


82 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  9  —  continued 
Brighton.  —  Hollis  Pond 


Color 

Residue  on 
Evaporation 

Ammonia 

Chlo- 
rine 

Nitrogen 
as 

Bacteria 
per  c.c. 

Loss 
on  Ig- 
nition 

Fixed 
Residue 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

Water 
or  Ice 

Snow 
Ice 

Water 

Ice 

Per  cent. . .  . 

O.I 
0.0 

0.30 

0.60 

•0354 
.0012 

3 

.0296 

.0022 
7 

1-59 

0.00 
0 

.4000 

.0030 

I 

.0031 

.0000 
0 

20000 

702 
3 

Dorchester.  —  King's  Pond 


Water.  . 

Ice 

Per  cent. 


0.2 

.0314 

.0262 

1. 19 

.0800 

.0013 

412 

0.0 

0.50 

1. 10 

.0028 

.0044 

O.OI 

.0030 

.0000 

6 

9 

17 

I 

4 

0 

I 

Newton.  —  Hammond's  Pond 


Water .  . 

Ice 

Per  cent. 


I.I 

.0038 

.0450 

0.54 

.0040 

.0003 

"S 

0.0 

0.20 

0-55 

.0000 

.0012 

0.00 

.0030 

.0000 

8 

0 

3 

0 

75 

0 

7 

Arlington.  —  Little  Spy  Pond 


Water 

0.2 

.0058 

.0390 

1.70 

•1750 

.0020 

1029 

Ice 

0.0 

0.6S 

2.68 

.0026 

.0068 

0.02 

.0020 

.0000 

II 

61 

Per  cent 

45 

17 

I 

I 

0 

I 

6 

Melrose.  —  Ell  Pond 


Water .  . 

Ice 

Per  cent. 


0.2 

.0240 

.0202 

0.94 

.0650 

.0009 

0.0 

0.68 

2.20 

.0020 

.0028 

0.02 

.0050 

.0000 

2 

8 

14 

2 

8 

0 

Cambridge.  —  Fresh  Pond 


Water .  . 

Ice 

Per  cent. 


0.05 

.0230 

.0180 

1.00 

.0300 

.0008 

II 

0.00 

0.56 

0.80 

.0022 

.0030 

0.02 

.0020 

.0000 

3 

10 

17 

2 

67 

0 

27 

POLLUTION  OF  ICE  SUPPLIES 
Table  g  —  concluded 
WoBURN  —  Horn  Pond 


83 


Color 

Residue  on 
Evaporation 

Ammonia 

Chlo- 
rine 

Nitrogen 
as 

Bacteria 
per  c.c. 

Loss 
on  Ig- 
nition 

Fixed 
Residue 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

Water 
or  Ice 

Snow 
Ice 

Water 

Ice 

Per  cent. . . . 

0.25 
0.00 

0.25 

0.60 

.0172 

.0010 

6 

.0210 

.0028 

13 

0.67 

0.02 

3 

.0200 

.0000 

0 

.0007 
.0000 

0 

327 
3 

I 

The  chemical  results  are  given  in  parts  per  100,000. 
The  bacteria  are  indicated  by  the  number  found  in  a  cubic  centimeter. 
The  percentage  of  each  substance  of  the  water  that  remained  in  the  ice  or  in 
snow  ice  is  given. 


These  waters  all  contain  more  ammonias  than  are  desirable  in 
drinking  waters;  but  the  ice  formed  from  these  waters  contains 
from  three  to  twenty-one  per  cent  as  much  as  the  waters,  averag- 
ing eleven  per  cent.  The  amount  of  ammonias  contained  in  the 
ice,  except  in  the  one  containing  the  largest  amount,  would  not 
cause  them  to  be  condemned  as  drinking  waters;  neither  would 
the  number  of  bacteria,  except  in  the  case  of  ice  from  the  Black- 
stone  River  and  from  HolHs  Pond  in  Brighton.  But  we  cannot 
depend  upon  numbers  alone.  A  large  number  of  bacteria  of  one 
kind  may  be  harmless,  and  a  small  number  of  another  kind  may 
communicate  a  most  serious  disease.  It  is  known,  from  these 
experiments  as  well  as  from  others,  that  many  kinds  of  bacteria 
survive  a  long  season  in  ice;  and  it  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Prud- 
den  that  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever  will  live  in  decreasing  num- 
bers in  ice  for  three  months  at  least.  It  is,  then,  the  quahty  of  the 
bacteria  rather  than  the  quantity  that  we  are  to  consider,  and  the 
best  judgment  in  regard  to  this  includes  the  source  from  which 
they  came.  If  the  source  is  one  which  is  liable  to  be  polluted  by 
disease-producing  bacteria,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case  wherever 
sewage  enters,  this  fact  should  have  much  more  weight  than  the 
small  number  of  bacteria  found. 


84 


STATE  SANITATION 


The  purifying  effect  of  freezing  is  greater  upon  substances  that 
are  in  solution  than  it  is  upon  those  in  suspension.  For  example, 
upon  freezing  the  upper  part  of  a  body  of  sewage  to  the  depth  of 
one  inch ,  the  substances  in  solu  tion  were  reduced  as  given  below :  — 

Table  io 


Loss  on  ignition 

Fixed  residue 

Free  ammonia 

Albuminoid  ammonia 
Chlorine 


Sewage 

Ice 

10.4 

1.8 

19.6 

2.2 

1.646 

0.184 

0.250 

0.012 

4.20 

0.52 

Per  Cent 

Remaining 

in  Ice 


17 
II 
II 

5 
12 


The  parts  in  suspension  were  affected  as  follows: 


Loss  on  ignition 

Fixed  residue 

Albuminoid  ammonia 


2.8 

1.9 

2-3 

1.6 

0.130 

0.036 

68 
70 
28 


Of  the  parts  that  were  in  solution  in  the  sewage,  the  freezing 
process  caused  to  be  removed  all  of  the  impurities  except  from 
five  to  seventeen  per  cent,  while  of  the  much  smaller  parts  which 
were  in  suspension  there  remained  in  the  ice  from  twenty-eight 
to  seventy  per  cent. 

The  unfrozen  sewage  under  the  ice  contained  the  impurities 
which  the  ice  had  expelled. 

It  appears  that  the  parts  that  are  in  suspension,  particularly 
particles  that  have  some  buoyancy  in  water,  are  not  so  easily 
expelled  as  the  parts  that  are  in  solution.  This  is  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  organic  matter,  one-half  or  three- 
quarters  and  sometimes  more,  that  is  found  in  good  ice  is  of 
particles  in  suspension,  and  is  readily  removed  by  filter  paper. 

The  inch  in  depth  of  frozen  sewage  contained  ten  per  cent 
of  the  organic  impurity  of  the  sewage,  as  indicated  by  the  siun  of 
ammonias;  and  from  other  experiments  we  have  reason  to  con- 
clude that,  if  another  inch  in  depth  had  formed  under  the  first,  it 
would  have  contained  a  still  smaller  percentage  of  organic  im- 


POLLUTION  OF  ICE  SUPPLIES  85 

purity;  but  if  the  first  inch  had  been  pressed  down,  and  the  sew- 
age had  risen  above  it  and  then  frozen,  this  last  layer  would  have 
been  as  impure  as  the  sewage.  This  is  an  extreme  case  of  impurity 
of  the  source. 

Taking  an  average  of  all  of  the  water  and  ice  used  for  ice  sup- 
phes,  which  we  have  examined,  we  find  that  the  organic  impurities 
of  the  snow  ice,  as  shown  by  the  sum  of  ammonias,  amount  to 
sixty-nine  per  cent  of  those  of  the  waters;  that  the  organic  im- 
purities of  all  the  ice  except  the  snow  ice  amount  to  twelve  per 
cent,  and  those  of  what  we  have  called  clear  ice  amount  to  six 
per  cent,  of  the  impurities  of  the  waters.  The  color  of  the  waters 
was  entirely  removed,  and  the  salt  that  they  contained  was  nearly 
all  removed,  by  the  process  of  freezing. 

There  were  eighty-one  per  cent  as  many  bacteria  in  the  snow 
ice  as  in  the  waters;  ten  per  cent  as  many  in  all  other  ice,  and  two 
per  cent  as  many  in  the  clear  ice,  as  in  the  waters. 

While  the  Board,  as  before  stated,  was  unable  in  these  warm 
winters  to  make  the  experiments  desired  to  settle  many  points  of 
the  inquiry,  the  results  obtained  lead  to  the  conclusions  that, 
while  clear  ice  from  polluted  sources  may  contain  so  small  a  per- 
centage of  the  impurities  of  the  source  that  it  may  not  be  re- 
garded as  injurious  to  health,  the  snow  ice  and  any  ice,  however 
clear,  that  may  have  been  formed  by  flooding,  is  likely  to  contain 
so  large  a  percentage  of  the  impurities  of  the  source,  and  with 
these  impurities  some  of  the  disease  germs  that  may  be  in  the 
source,  that  the  Board  feels  bound  to  warn  the  pubHc  against 
using  ice  for  domestic  purposes  that  is  obtained  from  a  source 
polluted  by  sewage  beyond  that  which  would  be  allowable  in  a 
drinking  water  stream  or  pond;  and  that  in  general  it  is  much 
safer  to  use,  for  drinking  water  and  for  placing  in  contact  with 
food,  that  portion  of  the  ice  that  is  clear. 

H.  P.  Walcott,  Julius  H.  Appleton, 

Hiram  F.  Mills,  Frank  W.  Draper, 

Thornton  K.  Lothrop,     Joseph  W.  Hastings, 

E.  U.  Jones,  state  Board  of  Health. 


XI 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATE    BOARD    OF    HEALTH    UPON    THE 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  MYSTIC  AND  CHARLES  RIVER 

VALLEYS 

[This  report  relates  to  the  establishment  of  the  North  Metropolitan  System  of 
sewers.  It  contains  an  interesting  account  of  filtration  experiments  made  to  deter- 
mine the  feasibility  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  of  Boston  on  the  Saugus  Marshes. 
Special.  Report,  1889.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  Resolves  of  the  General  Court,  under  which  the  State 
Board  of  Health  has  made  investigations  relating  to  sewage  dis- 
posal, and  has  made  designs  for  a  system  of  sewerage  for  the 
Mystic  and  Charles  River  vpUeys,  are  as  follows:  — 

[Chap.  95.] 

Resolve  relating  to  sewage  disposal  in  the  mystic  and 
charles  river  valleys 

Resolved,  That  the  state  board  of  health  is  hereby  authorized 
and  directed  to  consider  and  report  a  general  system  of  drainage 
and  sewerage  for  the  rehef  of  the  valley  of  Mystic  river,  and  so 
much  of  the  valley  of  Charles  river,  if  any,  whose  rehef  in  the 
opinion  of  said  board  is  to  be  sought  in  conjunction  with  the 
Mystic  valley  system,  and  for  such  cities  and  towns,  or  parts  of 
cities  and  towns  as  may,  in  the  opinion  of  said  board,  be  best 
reheved  by  the  use  of  said  system;  and  so  much  of  the  report 
of  the  commissioners  appointed  under  resolve  approved  May 
twenty-eighth,  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-four,  as 
relates  to  the  cities  and  towns,  or  parts  of  cities  and  towns,  which 
said  board  shall  incorporate  in  the  system  to  be  reported  under 
this  resolve,  is  hereby  referred  to  said  board  for  its  further  con- 
sideration, and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  board,  — 

First.  To  designate  the  cities  and  towns,  and  parts  of  cities  and 
towns,  which  shall  be  tributary  to  and  embraced  in  the  district 

86 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       87 

and  system  so  to  be  reported,  and  to  define  the  same  by  their 
report,  with  plans  and  maps. 

Second.  To  define  and  show,  by  suitable  plans  and  maps,  such 
trunk  line  and  main  branches  as  it  shall  recommend  to  be  con- 
structed, with  outlet. 

Third.  To  define  the  methods  by  which  said  cities  and  towns, 
or  parts  of  any  city  or  town,  may  utihze  said  trunk  fine  and  main 
branches  as  an  outlet  of  a  system  of  sewerage  and  drainage  for 
said  respective  cities  and  towns,  and  said  parts  of  cities  and 
towns,  and  to  show  the  same  by  plans  and  maps. 

Fourth.  To  cause  such  surveys  and  levels  to  be  made  as  will 
enable  said  board  to  determine  with  accuracy  the  location  and 
grades  of  said  trunk  fine  and  main  branches,  and  also  such  sur- 
veys and  levels  in  said  cities  and  towns  and  parts  of  cities  and 
towns  as  will  enable  said  board  to  determine  with  accuracy  the 
methods  by  which  said  cities  and  towns  and  parts  of  cities  and 
towns  may  respectively  utilize  said  trunk  line  and  main  branches 
and  to  report  such  methods  by  plans  showing  the  main  fines  by 
which  each  may  so  provide  for  itself  a  system  of  sewerage  and 
drainage  with  its  outlet  into  said  trunk  fine  or  main  branches. 

Fifth.  To  define  the  size  and  capacity  of  said  trunk  fine  and 
main  branches  and  the  materials  of  which  they  should  be  con- 
structed and  manner  of  construction,  and  such  other  particulars 
as  will  enable  said  board  to  determine  the  probable  expense 
thereof. 

Sixth.  The  expenses  of  surveys,  maps  and  plans  made  to  show 
the  method  by  which  any  city  or  town,  or  part  of  city  or  town^ 
may  utiHze  said  trunk  fine  and  main  branches'  shall  be  separately 
kept,  and  the  same,  showing  the  amount  expended  in  each,  to- 
gether with  the  expenses  of  the  location  and  grade,  maps  and 
plans  of  said  trunk  fine  and  main  branches,  together  with  all 
other  expenses  in  the  premises,  and  the  items  thereof,  shall  be 
reported  to  the  governor  and  council,  and  all  such  costs  and 
expenses  shall  be  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth, 
on  bills  to  be  approved  by  the  governor  and  council. 

Seventh.  Each  city  or  town  which  wholly  or  in  part  said  board 
shall  consider  should  form  a  part  of  the  territory  to  be  embraced 


88  STATE  SANITATION 

in  the  system  to  be  reported  shall  be  notified  thereof  by  said  board 
as  soon  as  said  board  shall  determine  the  cities  and  towns  and 
parts  of  cities  and  towns  which  shall  constitute  said  sewerage  and 
drainage  district.  Said  notice  shall  contain  the  names  of  the  cities 
and  towns  wholly,  and  shall  designate  the  portions  of  the  cities 
and  towns  not  wholly  but  in  part,  incorporated  therein,  and  each 
of  such  cities  and  towns  may  confer  with  said  board  in  respect  to 
such  drainage  and  sewerage  system,  and  on  request  in  writing  be 
heard  by  said  board  on  matters  relating  to  the  method  of  its 
utihzing  said  trunk  line  and  main  branches  and  the  surveys, 
levels,  maps  and  plans  to  determine  and  show  the  same,  and  under 
the  superintendence  of  said  board  may,  at  its  own  expense,  make 
its  said  surveys,  levels,  maps  and  plans  for  the  use  of  said  board; 
but  all  questions  upon  which  any  city  or  town  shall  desire  to  be 
heard  shall  be  submitted  to  said  board  in  writing  with  such 
request. 

Eighth.  Said  board  shall  also  consider  whether  any  city  or  town 
within  such  district  can  more  advantageously  provide  for  itself  a 
system  of  sewerage  and  drainage  by  itself  and  not  as  a  part  of 
said  general  system,  and  shall  hear  such  city  or  town  thereon  if 
it  shall  so  request,  and  shall  also  make  report  thereof. 

Ninth.  To  ascertain  and  report  the  cost  of  the  construction  of 
said  trunk  line  and  main  branches  and  outlet,  and  of  the  annual 
expense  of  operating  the  same,  and  also  what  cities  and  towns,  or 
parts  of  cities  and  towns,  would  be  obliged  to  pump  their  sewage 
or  any  part  thereof,  at  what  places,  the  cost  of  the  works  therefor 
and  the  annual  expenses  thereof:  provided,  however,  the  whole 
amount  expended  under  the  provisions  of  this  resolve  shall  not 
exceed  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars ;  ^  and  reports  under  the 
same  shall  be  made  by  the  state  board  of  health  to  the  general 
court  on  or  before  the  first  Wednesday  of  January,  in  the  year 
eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-nine.    [Approved  June  i6,  iSSy. 

1  In  1888  the  further  sum  of  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       89 

[Chap.  63.] 

Resolve  providing  for  further  investigations  relative  to 
sewage  disposal  in  the  mystic  and  charles  river 

VALLEYS 

Resolved,  That  the  state  board  of  health  be  requested  to  desig- 
nate some  method  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  such  cities 
and  towns  as  are  embraced  within  the  lower  valley  of  the  Charles 
river,  in  the  report  of  the  commissioners  appointed  under  chapter 
sixty-three  of  the  resolves  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-four,  as  they  may  not  include  in  their  report  under  chap- 
ter ninety-five  of  the  resolves  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-seven,  and  so  much  of  said  report  as  relates  thereto  is 
hereby  referred  to  said  board  for  its  further  consideration.  Such 
designation  shall  be  made  as  a  part  of  the  report  required  by 
chapter  ninety-five  of  the  resolves  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred 
and  eighty-seven,  and  the  expense  thereof  charged  to  the  appro- 
priation provided  for  in  chapter  forty-two  of  the  resolves  of  the 
year  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-eight.     [Approved  April  24, 


The  territory  whose  relief  is,  under  these  resolves,  to  be  consid- 
ered by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  includes  an  area  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  square  miles,  and  contains  one-sixth  of  the 
population  of  the  state. 

Some  of  the  cities  have  more  or  less  complete  local  systems  of 
sewerage,  discharging  sewage  at  their  borders,  where  it  is  offen- 
sive to  their  own  citizens  and  to  their  neighbors,  and  has  become, 
or  is  rapidly  becoming,  dangerous  to  the  public  health.  Others  of 
the  cities  and  the  more  populous  towns  have  Httle  or  no  sewerage 
systems,  and  are  waiting,  with  soKcitude  for  the  health  of  their 
people,  the  action  of  the  General  Court  in  arranging  for  a  com- 
mon method  of  disposal  of  their  sewage,  being  prohibited  by 
statute,  or  by  considerations  of  public  health,  from  pouring  it 
into  the  streams  which  are  the  natural  drains  of  their  territory; 
and  still  other  towns,  sparsely  settled,  see  less  need  for  disposal  of 
their  own  sewage,  but  are  much  concerned  for  the  health  of  their 


90  STATE  SANITATION 

communities,  because  of  the  pollution  of  streams  upon  their 
borders  by  the  sewage  of  their  neighbors. 

To  devise  the  most  efficient  systems  of  relief  for  these  com- 
munities, and  to  present  plans  which,  upon  careful  consideration, 
would  meet  their  approval  as  the  best  that  can  be  adopted,  re- 
quired that  the  problem  should  be  solved  in  all  of  the  three  prac- 
ticable methods  of  solution  that  have  met  with  favor  elsewhere. 

These  methods  are :  — 

(i)  The  method  of  discharging  crude  sewage  into  a  strong 
tidal  current  that  will  convey  it  to  sea,  whence  it  cannot  return. 

(2)  The  method  of  partial  purification  by  filtration  upon  the 
bed  recommended  by  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission 
by  report  of  December  24,  1885,  or  upon  some  other  bed  or  beds. 

(3)  By  chemical  precipitation  and  discharge  of  the  clarified 
effluent  into  outgoing  tide  at  one  or  more  points. 

The  Board  concluded  that  the  general  consideration  of  each  of 
these  methods  should  be  committed  to  a  thoroughly  competent 
engineer,  skilled  in  the  particular  method  to  be  planned  by  him, 
and  that  he  should  take  time  to  investigate  the  whole  subject  in 
its  relation  to  this  locaHty,  and  work  up  the  best  plan  for  his 
method  of  disposal. 

The  Board  selected  Mr.  Howard  A.  Carson,  civil  engineer  of 
Boston,  who  had  been  the  superintendent  of  construction  of 
sewers  of  the  Boston  Main  Drainage  System,  and  went  abroad 
with  Mr.  Davis  to  study  the  discharge  of  sewers  into  tidal  cur- 
rents, to  make  the  investigations,  plans  and  estimates  by  the 
first  method,  which  plans  and  estimates  for  sewers,  modified  to 
meet  the  peculiar  conditions,  are  used  in  the  estimates  of  cost 
by  the  other  methods;  Mr.  Phinehas  Ball,  civil  engineer  of 
Worcester,  to  make  the  investigations,  plans  and  estimates 
appropriate  to  the  second  method;  and  Mr.  Charles  H.  Swan, 
civil  engineer  of  Boston,  to  make  the  investigations,  plans  and 
methods  appropriate  to  the  third  method. 

After  careful  examination  of  the  possible  localities  for  disposal 
of  the  sewage,  Mr.  Carson  concluded  that  the  best  outlet  for  the 
discharge  of  crude  sewage  is  a  Httle  west  from  the  Beacon  which 
is  one-third  of  a  mile  south  from  Deer  Island.    Mr.  Ball  found 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       91 

that  territory  including  and  in  the  vicinity  of  that  selected  by  the 
Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  of  1885  is  the  only  available 
territory  where  any  considerable  portion  of  the  sewage  of  Mystic 
valley  can  be  treated  by  filtration;  and  Mr.  Swan  selected  as  the 
most  favorable  for  the  chemical  precipitation  process  an  area  in 
Everett,  on  the  north  bank  of  Mystic  River,  between  Maiden 
Bridge  and  Island  End  River, 

A  system  of  intercepting  sewers  was  first  designed  and  located 
upon  the  ground,  and  estimates  of  cost  made,  for  receiving  and 
conveying  to  each  of  these  points  of  disposal  the  sewage  from 
Woburn,  Stoneham,  Winchester,  Arlington,  Belmont,  Medford, 
Melrose,  Maiden,  Everett,  Chelsea  and  East  Boston,  and  one-fifth 
of  Somerville  and  one-ninth  of  Cambridge,  containing  a  popula- 
tion estimated  to  be  150,000  in  1890  and  to  increase  to  300,000  in 
1930,  the  sewers  being  of  sufficient  capacity  to  serve  the  popula- 
tion of  1930. 

With  the  estimated  cost  of  these  systems  of  sewers  by  Mr.  Car- 
son, and  the  estimates  of  Mr.  Swan  for  the  process  of  disposal  by 
the  aid  of  chemical  precipitation,  the  chief  engineer  and  the  con- 
sulting engineer  of  the  Board  made  for  the  use  of  the  Board  a 
comparative  estimate  of  the  cost  and  yearly  running  expenses  for 
each  of  the  three  methods  of  disposal,  which  comparative  esti- 
mate is  given  in  the  table  on  the  following  page  to  indicate  the 
steps  by  which  the  Board  has  reached  its  final  conclusions. 

These  estimates  show  that  the  amount  to  be  paid  on  the  cost 
and  maintenance  of  works,  and  yearly  running  expenses  for  the 
forty  years  for  which  the  systems  were  designed  to  be  adequate 
for  the  territory  embraced,  is  more  than  fifty  per  cent  greater  for 
the  method  of  disposal. by  chemical  precipitation  at  Island  End 
River  and  discharge  of  the  clarified  sewage  there  on  the  but-going 
tide,  than  for  the  method  of  discharge  of  crude  sewage  into  tidal 
currents  at  Deer  Island  Beacon. 

Wlien  we  consider  a  larger  population  than  the  300,000,  and 
find  that  the  cost  of  chemicals  and  their  application  and  the 
removal  of  sludge  will  be  as  much  as  fifty  cents  per  inhabitant  a 
year,  while  the  whole  yearly  running  expenses  by  the  method  of 
discharge  at  Deer  Island  are  but  one-half  this  amount,  we  must 


92 


STATE  SANITATION 


conclude  that  if  a  larger  territory  as  favorably  situated  in  respect 
to  the  outlet  at  Deer  Island  be  included  in  a  system  discharging 
there,  the  resulting  cost  will  to  a  much  greater  degree  be  in  favor 
of  the  Deer  Island  outlet. 

This  result,  though  not  anticipated  by  the  Board,  was  received 
with  satisfaction,  because  the  effluent  from  chemical  precipitation 

Table  ii 

Comparative  Estimate  of  Cost  of  Sewers  for  Mystic  Valley  for  a 

Prospective  Population  of  300,000,  used  at  First  by  a 

Population  of  150,000 


If  Crude 

Sewage  be 

Discharged 

Continuously 

into  Tide 

Water  at 

Deer  Island 

Beacon 

If  Sewage 

be  Filtered  on 

Saugus 

Marshes 

If  Sewage  be 
Precipitated 
by  Chemicals 
at  Island  End 
River,  and 
Effluent  be 
Discharged 
at  Ebb  Tide 

First  cost 

$2,726,995 

$2,654,626 

$2,384,503 

Yearly  running  expenses  and  maintenance 
Interest  and  sinking  fund  at  4I  per  cent .  . 

$55,760 
129,532 

$66,700 
126,095 

$132,800 
113,264 

Total  yearly  cost 

$185,292 
$2,792,995 

$192,795 

$246,064 
$2,835,651 

The  same  sewers  used  by  a  population  of 

300,000 
First  cost 

•"iltering  area  insuf- 
ficient for  so  large 
a  population 

Yearly  running  expenses  and  maintenance 
Interest  and  sinking  fund  at  4!  per  cent . . 

$72,020 
132,667 

$222,300 
134,693 

Total  yearly  cost 

$204,687 

$356,993 

in  England  has  been  found  to  contain  nearly  one-half  of  the 
putrescible  material  of  the  sewage,  and  in  some  cases  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  still  further  purify  it  by  filtering  it  through 
land  before  turning  it  into  streams.  In  this  case  it  is  to  be  turned 
into  a  large  body  of  salt  water,  upon  which  it  will  tend  to  float, 
and,  on  the  first  ebb,  will  be  carried  down  to  Fort  Point  channel, 
and  with  the  returning  tide  backed  into  the  Mystic,  Chelsea  and 
Charles  rivers :  in  the  first  river,  nearly  to  the  starting  point,  and 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       93 

in  the  last,  about  up  to  Craigie's  Bridge.  On  the  second  ebb,  the 
new  discharge  of  clarified  sewage  will  mingle  to  some  extent  with 
water  containing  the  former  discharge,  so  that,  as  Mr.  Swan 
shows,  there  will  always  be  the  effluent  from  as  much  as  one  and 
one-half  days'  sewage  in  the  waters  about  the  principal  wharf 
fronts  of  Charlestown,  Chelsea,  East  Boston,  East  Cambridge 
and  Boston. 

This  effluent  is  expected  to  be  nearly  colorless  and  clear  when 
discharged,  and  will  probably  not  be  recognized  as  sewage  after 
being  in  the  river  an  hour.  It  will  probably  be  mingled,  to  some 
extent,  with  the  water  of  the  river  and  harbor  throughout  its 
depth,  but,  being  lighter  than  the  salt  water,  will,  during  its  pas- 
sage back  and  forth  past  the  wharves  of  these  cities,  probably  be 
mingled  to  the  greater  extent  with  the  water  at  and  near  the  sur- 
face. In  calm,  moist  weather  we  can  but  anticipate  a  marked 
effect  of  this  surface  water  containing  putrescible  matter  in  adding 
to  the  discomfort  of  the  great  number  of  people  who  breathe  the 
muggy  air  which  has  slowly  moved  over  these  waters. 

Intercepting  the  sewage  that  now  enters  these  waters,  collecting 
it,  —  together  with  large  additions  from  the  surrounding  country, 
—  treating  it  with  chemicals  which  remove  the  objectionable 
appearance  and  present  odor  of  sewage,  but  still  leaving  in  it  one 
half,  more  or  less,  of  the  constituents  which  chemically  distin- 
guish sewage  from  pure  water,  and  pouring  this  back,  in  ever- 
increasing  quantity,  into  these  rivers,  surrounded  by  so  dense  a 
population,  is  a  scheme  to  which  the  State  Board  of  Health  would 
be  unwilling  to  give  its  approval,  until  satisfied  by  experiments 
which  have  not  yet  been  made  that  the  results  would  not  be  detri- 
mental to  the  public  health.  Moreover,  finding  the  cost  of  remov- 
ing the  sewage  beyond  all  habitations  and  turning  it  into  the 
ocean  to  be  decidedly  less  than  the  cost  of  the  questionable 
method  by  chemical  precipitation,  the  Board  is  relieved  from 
further  investigation  of  the  latter  method,  and  dismisses  it  as 
inappKcable  to  the  present  circumstances. 

The  ordinary  quantity  of  sewage  to  be  pumped  daily  we  have 
concluded  to  regard  as  no  gallons  per  inhabitant,  when  serving  a 


94  STATE  SANITATION 

population  of  150,000,  and  120  gallons  per  inhabitant  when  this 
population  grows  to  be  300,000,  —  making  16,500,000  gallons  per 
day  to  be  pumped  presently  after  the  completion  of  the  works, 
and  36,000,000  gallons  to  be  disposed  of  forty  years  later. 

The  area  required  to  filter  these  quantities  of  sewage  varies 
within  a  very  wide  range,  depending  upon  the  character  and  the 
porosity  of  the  filtering  material  and  the  disposal  to  be  made  of 
the  effluent. 

The  Board  has  made  very  extended  experiments  upon  the 
Saugus  Marshes  to  determine  the  quantity  of  water  that  will  go 
down  through  the  surface  when  kept  constantly  covered  with  one 
or  two  inches  of  water,  and  underdrained  at  the  depth  of  six  feet, 
and  the  water  in  the  drains  kept  from  three  and  a  half  to  five  feet 
below  the  surface. 

Experiments  have  also  been  made  to  learn  the  quantity  that 
would  pass  through  where  the  surface  was  kept  covered  but  a  part 
of  the  time. 

These  experiments  were  in  charge  of  Mr.  Ball  from  their  com- 
mencement in  April  till  the  latter  part  of  July,  when  owing  to  ill 
health  he  found  it  necessary  to  discontinue  work,  and  they  were 
continued  till  the  first  of  October  in  charge  of  Mr.  Frederick 
Brooks,  civil  engineer  of  Boston. 

At  each  of  four  different  places  on  these  marshes  two  circular 
beds  were  arranged  with  underdrains,  and  dikes  to  prevent  over- 
flow by  the  tide.  One  of  these  beds  retained  the  surface  of  turf; 
the  other  had  the  turf  to  the  thickness  of  four  inches  removed  and 
the  surface  spaded  up  as  if  to  be  planted. 

Upon  these  beds,  about  fifteen  feet  in  diameter  and  separated 
from  the  surrounding  marsh  by  a  low  embankment,  water  was 
applied  to  the  depth  of  two  inches.  Outside  of  this  embankment, 
a  few  feet  away,  was  a  second  encirchng  embankment;  and  out- 
side of  this,  a  third  embankment.  Between  these  embankments 
water  was  kept,  as  near  as  practicable,  at  the  same  height  as  in 
the  interior  area. 

At  one  place,  intermediate  between  two  others,  a  single  bed 
ten  feet  by  twenty  feet  was  built,  with  the  three  fines  of  encir- 
chng embankments;  in  this  bed  the  surface  of  turf  was  retained. 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       95 

Arranging  the  beds  in  the  order  of  the  depth  of  peat,  we  give 
in  the  following  table  the  quantity  of  water  that  passed  through 
the  surface  of  each  when  kept  continually  covered  with  water, 
while  the  water  in  the  underdrains  was  kept  from  three  and  a  half 
to  five  feet  below  the  surface :  — 

Table  12 


Depth 
of 

Quantity  of  Water  Passing  Through  the  Surface  when  Continually 
Covered 

Peat 

In  Gallons  per  Acre  per  Day 

Feet 

Natural  Surface  with  Turf 

Turf  Removed  and  Surface  Spaded 

1-5 
1-7 
2.1 

3-5 
S-o 

39,000 

40,000 

100,000 

21,000 

3,500 

34,000 

32,000 

23,000 

3,800 

Experiments  were  made  at  six  of  the  beds  on  the  marsh  to  see 
the  effect  of  allowing  the  surface  to  remain  dry,  after  each  appli- 
cation of  water,  as  long  a  time  as  it  took  for  about  two  inches 
in  depth  of  water  to  disappear.  The  result  of  this  intermittent 
treatment,  with  intervals  of  one  to  two  days,  continued  for  ten 
days  or  two  weeks,  was,  that  very  Httle  increase  of  capacity  to 
transmit  water  followed  such  intermission;  so  that  during  a 
month  when  the  surface  is  covered  with  water  half  the  time,  but 
Kttle  more  than  half  the  quantity  of  water  will  flow  through  if 
it  be  kept  constantly  covered. 

The  experiments  of  the  Board  upon  the  filtration  of  sewage  by 
other  material  than  peat  show  that  the  amount  of  sewage  that 
can  be  filtered,  month  after  month,  is  very  much  less  than  the 
amount  of  clear  water  that  will  continually  flow  through  the 
material  of  the  filter. 

Most  of  the  good  filtering  materials  with  which  the  Board  has 
experimented  will  allow  from  ten  times  to  one  thousand  times  as 
much  clear  water  to  flow  through  them  as  the  marsh  surface,  and 
will  filter,  giving  an  efiiuent  suitable  to  turn  into  Pines  River  near 
a  bathing  beach,  from  less  than  one  per  cent  to  more  than  six  per 


96  STATE  SANITATION 

cent  of  the  amount  of  clear  water  that  will  at  first  flow  through 
them.  But  the  material,  not  peat,  which  has  filtered  satisfac- 
torily, and  which  is  most  nearly  comparable  with  the  marsh 
material,  is  composed  of  fine  and  coarse  sand  and  a  little  fine 
gravel,  overlaid  by  about  twenty  inches  in  depth  of  yellow  loam 
and  brown  soil.  This  material  allowed  three  times  as  much  clear 
water  to  pass  through  it  as  the  average  of  the  marsh,  and  for  a 
time  filtered  satisfactorily  for  the  purpose  there  required  one- 
third  as  much  sewage  as  it  at  first  passed  of  clear  water ;  but  this 
quantity  of  sewage  grew  less  by  the  choking  of  the  surface,  until 
but  one-twentieth  as  much  would  pass  as  originally  of  clear 
water.  Then  the  surface  was  scraped  off  to  the  depth  of  half  an 
inch,  when  it  filtered  readily  and  satisfactorily  a  quantity  of 
sewage  equal  to  one  quarter  of  the  original  quantity  of  clear 
water;  but  this  quantity  gradually  grew  less  and  in  one  month 
filtered  but  one-eighth  of  the  original  quantity  of  clear  water. 

These  results  induced  the  Board  to  make  experiments  to  deter- 
mine, as  near  as  practicable  in  the  time  at  its  disposal,  the 
amount  of  sewage  that  can  be  filtered  by  material  taken  from  the 
marsh  at  the  location  of  the  four  double  beds  above  described. 
When  digging  the  drain  between  the  two  beds  at  each  place  a 
pillar  of  the  material  two  feet  square  and  five  feet  high  was  left; 
and  this  was  carefully  cut  in  layers  six  inches  deep  and  placed  in 
order  in  boxes,  which  were  taken  to  the  experimental  station  at 
Lawrence;  and  each  layer  was  carefully  cut  to  a  circle  twenty 
inches  in  diameter,  and  the  bottom  layer  was  placed  in  a  galva- 
nized iron  tank  twenty  inches  in  diameter,  upon  a  bed  of  six  inches 
of  coarse  and  fine  gravel  and  coarse  sand,  which  served  as  an 
underdrain;  and  each  layer  from  the  marsh  was  placed  above 
this,  in  its  order,  filling  the  tank  to  the  depth  of  five  feet.  Four 
tanks,  filled  in  this  way,  represented  as  nearly  as  practicable  the 
actual  condition  of  the  material  in  the  marsh  at  the  four  localities. 

Sewage  has  been  appKed  to  the  peat  in  these  tanks  in  such 
quantities  as  it  would  receive,  for  six  and  seven  months,  with 
results  which  are  given  in  much  detail  because  of  their  importance 
in  deciding  the  question  of  the  practicability  of  filtering  sewage 
through  a  layer  of  peat. 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       97 

Tank  No.  i  of  material  from  Saugus  Marsh,  having  one  and 
a  half  feet  in  depth  of  peat,  with  the  peaty  sand  and  clear  sand 
below,  making  a  total  depth  of  five  feet,  being  completely  under- 
drained,  was  supplied  with  sewage,  keeping  the  surface  covered 
continually  with  a  depth  of  about  five  inches,  for  three  months, 
with  the  following  result:  — 

During    the    first    month    the    flow    from 

bottom  of  tank  was  at  the  rate  of  ....  22,000  gals,  per  acre  per  day 

During  the  second  month,  at  the  rate  of.  .  16,000     "       "       "      "      " 

During  the  third  month,  at  the  rate  of  .  .  .  9,200     "       "       "      "      " 

During  the  fourth  month  the  sewage  on  the  surface,  five  inches 
deep,  was  allowed  to  settle  away  and  disappear,  which  it  did  in 
twenty-eight  days.  The  quantity  flowing  out  decreased  to  5,000 
gallons  on  the  fifth  day,  and  on  the  day  before  sewage  disap- 
peared from  the  surface  the  quantity  flowing  was  but  2,400 
gallons  per  acre.  For  the  next  three  weeks  about  the  quantity 
which  came  out  was  applied  intermittently,  allowing  the  surface 
to  become  uncovered  after  each  application,  and  the  quantity 
flowing  out  decreased  to  1,200  gallons  per  acre  per  day.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  the  surface  dried  sufl&ciently  for  the  mass  of  peat 
to  shrink  away  from  the  sides  of  the  tank,  leaving  a  crack  through 
which  liquid  could  flow  down  freely  for  some  distance,  so  that  the 
quantity  increased  for  a  week  to  11,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day; 
but  by  keeping  the  surface  continually  covered,  the  peat  again 
swelled  and  the  crack  filled  with  slime,  and  the  average  daily  out- 
flow for  the  sixth  month  was  5,200  gallons,  decreasing  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  month  to  3,600  gallons,  and  during  the  seventh 
month  the  average  daily  flow  for  three  weeks  was  3,000  gallons, 
decreasing  to  2,400  gallons  per  acre  per  day. 

It  is  evident  that  the  sewage  came  through  this  material,  for 
the  chlorine  from  the  salt  marsh  decreased  in  the  first  two  months 
from  1,200  parts  in  100,000  to  75  parts,  and  has  since  decreased 
to  31  parts.  The  ammonias,  being  in  the  first  sample  o.io  parts 
in  100,000,  decreased  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  decrease  in  flow 
in  two  months  to  0.02  parts,  and  have  since  increased  and 
averaged  during  the  past  month  0.26  parts. 


98  STATE  SANITATION 

The  effluent  is  now  suitable  to  turn  into  an  arm  of  the  sea  near 
a  bathing  beach,  but  as  no  nitrification  takes  place  it  is  probable 
that  the  filtering  material  is  storing  up  ammonia  that  will  come 
out  later,  rendering  the  effluent  objectionable.  Keeping  the 
surface  continually  covered  with  sewage,  as  in  the  earlier  experi- 
ments, the  surface  becomes  covered  with  a  disagreeable  sKme, 
which,  on  account  of  the  very  slow  percolation  of  the  Hquid, 
accumulates  rapidly,  and,  no  doubt,  has  the  effect  to  close  up  the 
interstices  of  the  peat  and  cause  the  amount  flowing  through  to 
decrease  so  rapidly.  But  the  choking  of  the  surface  appears  in 
the  later  experiments  to  be  more  complete  when  the  water  is 
allowed  to  drain  out  of  the  slime  after  it  has  been  deposited. 

The  experiments  upon  this  material  prove  to  the  Board  that  an 
area  of  sand  covered  with  peat  to  the  depth  of  even  one  foot  is 
unsuitable  to  be  used  for  a  filtration  area.  They  indicate  that  if 
so  used  the  surface  will  become  covered  with  a  slime  which  will 
prove  a  nuisance ;  that  sewage  applied  to  such  an  area  in  winter 
will  have  to  remain  so  long  upon  the  surface  that  it  will  freeze 
and  the  whole  become  inoperative ;  that  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  the  quantity  of  sewage  which  can  flow  through  the 
peat  is  so  small,  and  the  effluent  so  little  improved  by  passing, 
that  it  is  not  expedient  to  use  it  for  this  purpose;  and  that  the 
only  way  to  render  such  an  area  suitable  for  filtration  is  to  remove 
the  peat  entirely  from  the  sand  and  apply  the  sewage  directly  to 
the  sand. 

To  remove  peat  from  the  marsh  surface  to  the  depth  of  one  foot 
would  cost  as  much  as  four  hundred  dollars  per  acre,  which  indi- 
cates that  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  consider  the  practicability 
of  using  the  marsh  for  filtration  where  there  is  more  than  one  foot 
in  depth  to  be  removed. 

The  whole  area  of  the  Saugus  Marshes,  where  the  depth  of  peat 
is  not  more  than  one  foot,  is  about  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  acres,  of  which  about  sixty  acres  are  in  detached  pieces, 
and  the  remainder  is  in  three  distinct  areas. 

One  of  these,  southwest  of  Pines  River,  near  Linden  Station, 
contains  about  one  hundred  acres  with  peat  six  inches  to  a 
foot  thick,  underlaid  with  sand.     Over  about  one-half  the  area 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS       99 

the  sand  is  very  compact,  and  allows  water  to  percolate  very 
slowly. 

Another  section,  in  the  vicinity  of,  and  including  the  Franklin 
Trotting  Park,  contains  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  acres, 
with  peat  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  deep,  much  of  which  is  under- 
laid with  perhaps  six  inches  of  peaty  sand,  below  which  over  three- 
quarters  of  the  area  is  open  sand,  which  alone  at  a  proper  height 
above  tide  water  would  be  good  filtering  material.  The  other 
quarter  of  the  area  has,  beneath,  a  compact  material  which  allows 
water  to  percolate  very  slowly. 

The  third  section  contains  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres 
and  is  on  either  side  of  Bristow  Street  but  mostly  north  of  it. 
This  area  is  of  better  material  than  the  others,  about  thirty  acres 
of  it  being  from  two  to  four  feet  above  the  marsh  level  and 
covered  with  soil  containing  some  peat,  with  very  open  sand 
below.  This  could  be  used  advantageously  for  filtering,  but  it  is 
also  valuable  for  agriculture,  for  which  it  is  said  to  be  worth  three 
or  four  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  Adjacent  land  is  laid  out  into 
streets  with  sewers.  This  section  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  is 
subjected  to  a  mean  height  of  water  greater  than  the  remainder  of 
the  marsh,  owing  to  the  dam  of  the  Newhall  tide  mill,  which 
allows  a  range  of  water  from  high  tide  to  only  three  or  four  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  marsh. 

The  cost  of  the  land  and  the  removal  of  peat  from  these  tracts 
would  probably  exceed  five  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  Diking, 
underdraining,  preparing  carriers  from  the  pumping  station  and 
returning  drains  to  the  pumping  station,  would  probably  exceed 
six  hundred  dollars  more  per  acre.  An  indefinite,  but  consider- 
able expense,  must  be  incurred  in  diverting  and  pumping  rainfall 
coming  from  surrounding  higher  land.  The  cost  of  pumping 
ground  water  and  sewage  effluent,  after  the  sewage  is  filtered, 
would  be  much  larger  than  was  estimated  when  it  was  supposed 
that  the  marsh  material  would  serve  as  a  filter,  and  the  whole  was 
to  be  used  in  one  area.  And  the  most  that  can  be  expected  of  the 
three  areas  would  be  the  filtration  of  20,000  gallons  a  day  per  acre 
on  370  acres,  or  7,400,000  gallons,  which,  at  no  gallons  per 
inhabitant,  would  serve  for  67,000  people. 


lOO  STATE  SANITATION 

The  circumstances  are  so  unfavorable  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
carry  the  investigation  further  to  see  that  the  expense  of  prepara- 
tion and  yearly  maintenance  would  be  so  great  as  to  exclude  the 
use  of  these  areas  for  filtering  the  sewage  even  of  the  adjacent 
towns  of  Maiden,  Melrose,  Everett,  and  Revere,  which,  in  forty 
years,  would  tax  the  area  to  its  full  capacity. 

We  have  to  conclude,  then,  from  the  additional  information 
obtained  by  the  experiments  and  investigations  of  the  past  year, 
that  the  Saugus  Marshes  will  not  serve  for  a  filtering  area  for  the 
sewage  of  the  Mystic  VaUey;  and  as  there  is  no  other  area  avail- 
able for  filtering  this  sewage,  its  disposal  by  filtration  must  be 
abandoned. 

For  the  system  now  to  be  considered,  including  the  towns  of  the 
Mystic  Valley,  together  with  Cambridge,  Somerville,  Charles- 
town,  East  Boston  and  Winthrop,  which  we  designate  the  North 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  System,  the  only  reasonably  practicable 
method  of  disposal  is,  the  discharge  of  crude  sewage  into  the  sea; 
for  the  method  by  chemical  precipitation,  which  was  too  expensive 
for  adoption,  as  compared  with  this  method,  when  considering 
the  smaller  territory,  would  be  so  to  a  much  greater  degree  when 
a  territory  containing  double  the  population  is  included ;  and  the 
method  by  filtration  upon  land  cannot  be  adopted,  because  there 
is  not  sufficient  land  available  to  filter  one-eighth  of  the  sewage. 

We  have  then  first  to  consider  where  into  the  sea,  and  under 
what  conditions,  this  quantity  of  sewage  can  be  poured,  at  a 
reasonable  cost,  with  the  least  resulting  discomfort. 

Careful  study  of  the  tidal  currents  has  been  made  by  running 
floats  from  Shirley  Gut;  from  Faun  Bar  Beacon,  which  is  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  east  from  Deer  Island ;  and  from  Deer  Island 
Beacon,  which  is  one-third  of  a  mile  south  from  the  southern- 
most point  of  Deer  Island  and  in  the  north  edge  of  the  main  ship 
channel. 

For  the  quantity  of  sewage  to  be  discharged  from  the  North 
MetropoKtan  District,  the  currents  at  Shirley  Gut  are  of  too  short 
duration  and  would  not  carry  the  sewage  beyond  adjacent  flats. 
Either  of  the  other  sites  may  be  used,  but  more  satisfactory  dis- 
persion of  the  sewage,  —  because  of  stronger  currents,  —  and  less 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS     loi 

cost  in  construction,  render  Deer  Island  Beacon  preferable.  From 
this  locality  floats  have  been  run  at  all  stages  of  the  tide  to 
determine  the  course  that  sewage  will  take  if  discharged  here. 

From  the  paths  of  these  floats  it  is  evident  that  sewage  dis- 
charged in  any  desired  quantity,  from  one  hour  before  high  tide 
to  four  hours  after,  will  not  approach  any  shore  where  it  can  give 
the  least  offence.  It  will  be  carried  to  sea  through  the  north  and 
south  channels  never  to  return. 

Careful  study  has  also  been  made  of  the  results  that  may  be 
expected  if  the  sewage  be  discharged  here  continuously  through 
the  twenty-four  hours.  In  this  study  observations  were  made 
upon  the  sewage  discharged  at  Moon  Island,  where  the  rate  of 
outflow  during  the  time  of  discharge  may  be  called  fifteen  times 
that  of  the  continuous  flow  at  Deer  Island. 

From  Moon  Island  the  sewage  flows  away  with  the  tidal  current 
at  the  speed  of  about  one  mile  per  hour  and  spreads  to  a  width  of 
about  three  thousand  feet.  One-fifteenth  of  this  quantity  dis- 
charged continuously  at  Deer  Island,  flowing  with  a  tidal  current 
having  a  greater  velocity,  will  evidently  spread  to  a  much  less 
width.  If  it  spreads  to  one- sixth  the  extent,  or  to  five  hundred 
feet,  the  layer  of  sewage  upon  the  salt  water  will  be  much  thinner 
than  that  from  Moon  Island,  and  will  more  quickly  become  dissi- 
pated. Assuming  this  to  be  the  width,  plottings  have  been  made 
to  show,  from  the  paths  taken  by  twenty  floats  started  at  different 
times  during  the  rising  tide,  the  probable  position  of  the  succes- 
sive areas  of  sewage  starting  from  the  proposed  outlet  on  each 
hour  before  and  after  low  water,  as  they  would  be  at  one  hour 
from  the  time  of  starting  and  at  two  hours  from  the  time  of 
starting. 

These  plottings  are  presented  upon  a  map  ^  of  the  harbor,  on 
which  the  darker  shade  represents  the  position  of  the  sewage 
within  the  first  hour,  and  the  lighter  shade  the  position  within 
the  second  hour  after  starting.  As  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent continually  changes,  the  sewage  dehvered  between  the 
hours  will  be  distributed  over  the  whole  area  between  the  paths 
of  the  floats  started  upon  the  hour,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
areas. 

^  This  map  is  not  reproduced  here. 


I02  STATE  SANITATION 

The  front  of  the  body  of  sewage  at  two  hours  from  the  time  of 
starting  will,  from  experience  at  Moon  Island,  be  entirely  obliter- 
ated, and  no  appearance  of  sewage  can  be  recognized  farther 
away  than  the  shaded  area  upon  the  map  indicates,  unless  it 
be  an  occasional  grease-ball  or  some  other  small  floating  sub- 
stance that  has  escaped  through  the  racks  above  the  pumping 
station. 

At  the  Moon  Island  outlet  of  the  Boston  Main  Drainage 
System  the  sewage  collected  in  eleven  hours  is  generally  dis- 
charged in  a  body  in  about  half  an  hour,  and,  as  stated  above,  no 
sewage  is  to  be  found  in  the  tidal  current  into  which  it  enters  two 
hours  after  it  leaves  the  sewer.  That  we  might  make  observa- 
tions and  reach  just  conclusions  in  regard  to  a  stream  of  sewage 
discharging  continuously,  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  Boston  Main 
Drainage  Works  kindly  co-operated  with  the  Board  by  discharg- 
ing continuously,  on  a  falling  tide,  for  four  hours,  about  1,500,000 
gallons  per  hour,  the  equivalent  of  36,000,000  gallons  per  day, 
which  is  the  amount  estimated  to  be  discharged  at  Deer  Island 
outlet  when  the  population  is  between  300,000  and  400,000. 

When  sailing  in  the  stream  of  sewage,  or  on  the  leeward  side 
of  it,  from  near  the  outlet  of  the  sewer  and  for  a  distance  of  half 
a  mile  along  the  stream,  the  odor  of  the  sewage  was  disagreeable. 
Continuing  in  the  stream  of  sewage  beyond  this  distance  the  odor 
was  noticeable  for  a  time,  but  before  reaching  the  distance  of 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  outlet  of  the  sewer  the  odor 
could  not  be  distinguished.  At  this  distance,  however,  the  color 
of  the  water  was  distinctly  different  from  the  blue  of  sea  water,  — 
it  was  more  opaque  and  browner.  But  there  was  nothing,  at  this 
distance,  with  wind  blowing  up  stream  toward  the  outlet  of 
sewer,  either  in  appearance  or  odor,  that  was  in  the  least  objec- 
tionable. The  appearance  of  the  water  here  was  like  that  in  the 
upper  harbor  in  midstream,  between  the  Cunard  wharf  and  the 
New  York  and  New  England  railroad  docks. 

By  the  color  and  stillness  of  the  surface  the  area  containing 
sewage  could  be  distinguished  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  farther,  or 
at  a  distance  of  one  mile  from  the  outlet;  but  no  odor  could  be 
distinguished,  and  there  was  no  disagreeable  appearance. 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS     103 


At  one  mile  and  a  quarter  a  narrow  strip  of  smooth  water  and  a 
slightly  opaque  character  of  the  water,  —  seen  only  upon  very 
careful  examination,  — indicated  an  effect  from  sewage;  but  at 
one  and  a  half  miles  from  the  outlet  no  trace  of  the  sewage  could 
be  seen,  although  floats  which  started  with  the  sewage  had  gone 
far  beyond. 

To  present  this  subject  with  more  definiteness  than  can  be  con- 
veyed by  recording  the  observations  of  individuals,  samples  of 
the  water  taken  from  the  middle  of  the  stream  of  sewage  were 
subjected  to  most  careful  chemical  tests,  in  comparison  wdth  the 
adjacent  salt  water  which  was  unaffected  by  this  sewage,  and  with 
the  salt  water  of  the  inner  harbor. 

Samples  of  the  sewage  throughout  the  stream  of  observable 
sewage  and  beyond  were  taken  within  eight  inches  of  the  surface, 
after  the  stream  had  flowed  in  nearly  the  same  place  for  three 
hours,  and  were  subjected  to  chemical  analysis  with  the  following 
results : — 

Table  13 

(Parts  per  100,000) 


Free 
Ammonia 

AJbu- 

minoid 

Ammonia 

Sum  of 
Ammonias 

.0056 

.0098 

.0154 

.0056 

.0095 

.0151 

2.5000 

•5310 

3-0310 

.1944 

.0636 

.2580 

.0416 

.0254 

.0670 

.0224 

.0116 

.0340 

.0184 

.0156 

•0340 

.0136 

.0108 

.0244 

.0104 

.0096 

.0200 

.0480 

.0154 

.0634 

Chlorine 


Salt  water,  up  stream,  from  area  containing 

sewage   

Salt  water,  down  stream,  from  area  contain 

ing  sewage    

Water,  within  area  containing  sewage,  at 

the  following  distances  from  outlet: 

400  feet 

1,600    "     

3,200    "     

4,700    "     

6,200    "     

7,200    " 

9,200    "     

Water  in  mid  stream  at  crossing  of  North 

Ferry  to  East  Boston 


1,67s 
1,746 


773 
1,570 
1,621 
1,694 
1,689 
1,687 
1,710 

1,581 


From  these  analyses  it  appears  that  in  the  stream  of  sewage  at 
four  hundred  feet  from  the  outlet  of  the  sewer  the  upper  eight 


I04  STATE  SANITATION 

inches  in  depth  was  about  one-half  sewage.  At  i,6oo  feet  distant 
it  contained  about  one-eighteenth  of  its  bulk  of  sewage,  and  at 
3,200  feet,  or  five-eighths  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  outlet  of  the 
sewer,  the  ammonias  indicated  the  amount  of  sewage  added  to  be 
but  one  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  water,  and  the  same  amount 
as  found  in  mid  stream  at  the  crossing  of  North  Ferry  to  East 
Boston.  Beyond  this  distance  the  amount  of  ammonia  added 
became  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent  at  a  mile,  and  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent  at  one  and  four-fifths  miles  from  the  outlet. 

These  results  confirm  those  of  direct  observation.  With  the 
ordinary  wave  motion  at  this  place,  a  mile  from  the  outlet,  the 
amount  of  sewage  remaining  near  the  surface  of  the  water  is  so 
small  that  no  disagreeable  appearance  or  odor  can  be  recognized. 

From  these  experiments  and  the  position  of  the  currents  shown 
upon  the  map,  it  is  evident  that  the  sewage  discharged  continu- 
ously at  Deer  Island  Beacon  will  not  reach  any  shores,  nor  lodge 
upon  any  flats  that  are  exposed  at  low  tide,  nor  come  into  the 
neighborhood  of  any  dwelling,  nor  of  land  that  is  capable  of  being 
used  for  dwellings  in  the  future,  unless  it  be  on  a  portion  of  Deer 
Island. 

To  guard  against  deposits  of  heavy  material  near  the  proposed 
outlet,  provision  has  been  made  in  the  designs,  and  the  cost  of 
operating  included  in  the  estimates,  for  removing  at  each  of  the 
pumping  stations  and  at  the  river  crossings  whatever  material 
of  this  kind  may  get  into  the  sewers. 

This  material  will  come  principally  from  the  street  washings  of 
the  cities  which  now  have  the  combined  system  of  sewers,  and 
will  be  removed  by  sand  pumps  or  other  contrivances,  from 
places  where  it  has  been  allowed  to  settle. 

The  outlet  at  Deer  Island  Beacon  is  directly  into  a  tidal  current 
more  than  fifty  feet  deep,  in  which  the  velocity  of  more  than  two 
and  a  half  miles  per  hour  is  much  greater  than  that  in  the  sewer, 
and  the  scouring  effect  of  the  currents,  reversed  twice  daily,  wiU 
readily  remove  everything  which  the  sewer  can  bring  there.  This 
conclusion  is  confirmed  by  the  experience  at  Moon  Island,  — 
where  the  maximum  velocity  of  the  tidal  current  is  much  less,  — 
given  in  the  report  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  Board. 


NORTH  METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS     105 

As  a  result  of  this  study,  the  Board  has  concluded  that  it  is 
advisable  to  construct  the  sewage  works  to  discharge  continuously 
the  comparatively  small  stream  of  sewage  as  it  arrives  at  the  out- 
let. Should  the  time  ever  come  when  such  a  discharge  proves 
objectionable,  and  the  objection  can  be  removed  by  holding  the 
sewage  back  for  one,  two,  or  three  hours  after  low  tide,  the  capac- 
ity of  the  sewer  between  East  Boston  and  the  outlet  will  for 
several  years  be  sufficient  to  allow  of  such  storage  during  the 
hours  named;  and  if  it  becomes  desirable  to  store  the  sewage 
through  the  incoming  tide  and  discharge  it  only  when  the  out- 
going tide  will  carry  it  directly  to  sea,  a  reservoir  can  be  then 
built  on  Deer  Island  as  well  as  at  the  present  time ;  but  the  Board 
does  not  anticipate  the  need  of  such  a  reservoir. 

We  have  thought  it  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  vital  impor- 
tance of  providing  rehef  for  the  several  communities  included  in 
the  two  populous  districts,  because  the  action  of  the  General 
Court  in  directing  this  Board  to  consider,  not  whether  such  relief 
is  required,  but  how  it  can  be  wisely  accomplished,  indicates  that 
the  people  of  the  state  have  grown  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of 
action,  and  desire  only  to  be  shown  the  best  method  of  accom- 
plishing the  purpose. 

To  this  problem  we  have  devoted  our  energies  with  results 
which  we  are  gratified  to  present.  These  show  that  complete 
rehef  can  be  reached  by  expenditures  which  can  reasonably  be 
made  by  the  populous  and  wealthy  communities  interested  in  the 
healthfulness  of  this  great  metropolitan  territory. 

Henry  P.  Walcott, 
Elijah  U.  Jones, 
JuLros  H.  Appleton, 
Thornton  K.  Lothrop, 
Frank  W.  Draper, 
HmAM  F.  Mills, 
Theodore  C.  Bates, 

State  Board  of  Health. 


XII 

SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  THE  SELECTION  OF  SOURCES 
OF  WATER  SUPPLY  1 

By  Frederic  P.  Stearns 

[Mr.  Stearns'  paper  described  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  relating  to  the 
storage  of  water  and  its  relation  to  the  yield  of  catchment  areas.  The  data  given 
have  served  as  the  basis  of  much  recent  work.  The  original  paper  included  sections 
not  here  given  on  the  quantity  of  groimd  water  and  the  quality  of  surface  and  ground 
water.   Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1890,  p.  335.  —  G.  C.  W.3 

In  selecting  a  source  of  water  supply,  it  is  essential  that  all 
water  should  be  rejected  which  is  seriously  polluted  with  domestic 
sewage.  There  are  other  waters  not  so  polluted,  as  for  instance 
those  having  a  disagreeable  taste  and  odor  or  drawn  directly  from 
swamps,  which  are  manifestly  unfit  for  drinking.  A  water  may 
also  be  rejected  by  reason  of  its  extreme  hardness,  which  makes  it 
unsuitable  for  washing  purposes  and  for  use  in  boilers.  Among 
the  waters  which  may  be  used  there  is  a  large  difference  in  quality, 
and  this  in  connection  with  the  quantity  and  cost  should  receive 
careful  consideration  in  making  the  selection. 

Sources  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  those  in  which 
the  supply  is  taken  from  the  ground,  known  as  ground  waters,  and 
those  obtained  from  lakes,  ponds,  streams  and  storage  reservoirs,, 
known  as  surface  waters. 

The  prominent  characteristic  of  ground  water  is  freedom  from 
color  and  organic  matter  (including  microscopic  organisms),, 
while  surface  waters  are  frequently  colored  with  vegetable  matter 
derived  from  swamps,  and  almost  always  contain  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  microscopic  or  larger  organisms,  which,  when  abund- 
ant, frequently  impart  to  the  water  a  disagreeable  taste  and  odor. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  quantity,  sufficient  surface 
water  can  be  obtained  for  the  largest  cities,  and  the  amount  which 

^  These  suggestions  are  based  mainly  upon  observations  in  Massachusetts,  and, 
in  some  respects,  will  be  inapplicable  to  other  places  where  different  conditions  pre- 
vail. 

106 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     107 

can  be  obtained  from  a  given  watershed  can  be  estimated  in  ad- 
vance with  a  large  degree  of  accuracy.  Ground  water  supplies,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  much  more  limited  in  quantity,  and  the 
amount  to  be  obtained  from  any  given  place  cannot  be  as  accur- 
ately predicted. 

As  a  whole  we  may  say  that  when  unpolluted  ground  water  can 
be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity  from  regions  where  the  water 
does  not  dissolve  much  mineral  matter  and  in  this  way  become 
hard,  it  is  very  much  to  be  preferred  to  surface  water  for  the 
supply  of  a  city  or  town. 

With  these  general  statements  we  will  proceed  to  consider  in 
greater  detail  the  quantity  and  quahty  of  water  to  be  derived 
from  surface  and  ground  water  sources,  including  among  the 
ground  waters  those  taken  from  wells  and  filter-galleries  built 
beside  streams  and  ponds,  and  deriving  their  water,  in  part, 
from  these  surface  waters,  by  filtration. 

The  question  of  the  quality  of  waters  variously  situated  has 
been  so  fully  treated  in  the  Special  Report  of  the  Board,  Part  I, 
1890,  that  the  present  article  will  give  greater  prominence  to  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  obtained  under  different  circumstances. 

Quantity  of  Surface  Water 

All  sources  from  which  water  is  obtained  depend  for  their 
supply  upon  the  rain  which  falls  upon  the  area  from  which  the 
water  can  flow  over  the  surface  or  under  ground  to  the  point 
whence  it  is  taken  for  use.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases  this  area 
coincides  with  the  superficial  watershed  of  the  stream  or  pond 
utilized.  We  have,  therefore,  as  very  important  factors  affecting 
the  quantity  of  water,  the  amount  of  the  annual  rainfall  and  the 
area  of  the  watershed. 

The  whole  of  the  rain  which  falls  upon  a  watershed  does  not 
flow  off  into  the  streams,  because  much  is  lost  by  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  amount  of  this  loss  has  been 
determined  practically  by  comparing  the  quantity  of  water  falling 
upon  a  given  watershed  (as  deduced  from  the  depth  of  rainfall 
and  the  area  of  the  watershed)  with  the  amount  of  water  flowing 
off  in  the  streams.    Very  valuable  records  of  this  character  have 


io8 


STATE  SANITATION 


been  kept  by  the  city  of  Boston  for  many  years  at  Cochituate 
Lake,  Sudbury  River  and  Mystic  Lake,  and  the  results  have  been 
published  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Boston  Water  Board.  From 
these  we  learn  that  the  average  percentage  of  rainfall  collected 
from  these  three  watersheds  is  as  follows :  — 

Table  14 


Average 
Rainfall 

Average 
Rainfall 
Collected 

Per  Cent 
Collected 

Lake  Cochituate  (28  years'  observations)  . . . 

Sudbury  River  (16  years'  observations) 

Mystic  Lake  (13  years'  observations) 

Inches 
47.82 
45.80 
44.11 

Inches 

20.55 
22.67 
20.22 

42.97 
49-5° 
45-84 

In  attempting  to  determine  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be 
made  available  for  use  from  any  given  source,  the  above  figures, 
representing  the  average  results  of  many  years'  observations,  have 
only  a  limited  value,  because  there  is  a  marked  variation  in  the 
amount  of  rainfall  in  different  years  and  a  still  greater  difference 
in  the  amount  of  rainfall  collected,  the  rule  being  that  the  per- 
centage collected  decreases  with  the  amount  of  the  annual  rain- 
fall; moreover,  there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  amount  of  rainfall 
collected  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  In  view  of  these  dif- 
ferences it  is  obviously  necessary  to  take  into  account  the  rainfall 
collected  during  dry  periods  of  much  less  than  a  year's  duration. 
This  can  be  done  by  means  of  the  records  of  the  Boston  Water 
Works  above  referred  to.  Of  these  the  Sudbury  River  records  are 
the  most  accurate  and  the  most  generally  applicable  to  conditions 
existing  at  other  places,  and,  on  account  of  their  value  as  a  basis 
for  water  supply  estimates,  they  are  reproduced  from  the  reports 
of  the  Boston  Water  Board  in  the  following  table. "^ 

As  has  already  been  indicated  it  is  necessary  in  estimating  the 
capacity  of  sources  of  water  supply  to  take  into  account  the  dryest 
periods  which  have  occurred,  and  which  consequently  may  recur; 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  the  minimums  recorded  in  the  foregoing 
table  which  have  the  most  value.  These  for  periods  varying  in 
duration  from  one  month  to  sixteen  years  have  been  carefuUy 

1  Owing  to  the  length  of  this  table  it  has  not  been  reproduced  here. 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     109 

selected  from  the  table,  and  are  presented  in  more  convenient 
form  in  the  one  which  follows :  — 

Table  15 

Table  showing  the  Average  Daily  Flow  from  the  Sudbury  River  Water- 
shed FOR  Different  Periods,  varying  from  One  Month  to  Sixteen  Years, 
selecting  in  Each  Case  the  Dryest  Period  of  the  Given  Duration 


Dates 

Average  Daily  Flow  of  Watershed 

Length  of 
Period 

Gallons  per 

Day  per 
Square  Mile 

Gallons 
per  Day 
per  Acre 

Cubic  Feet 

per 
Second 

per 
Sq.  Mile 

I  month 

September,  1884 

44,000 

69 

.068 

2  months 

Sept.  I 

1884  to  Oct.    31, 

1884 

64,000 

100 

.099 

3  months 

July   I 

1883  to  Sept.  30, 

1883 

95,000 

148 

.147 

4  months 

July   I 

1883  to  Oct.    31, 

18S3 

118,000 

184 

.183 

5  months 

June  I 

1880  to  Oct.    31, 

1880 

131,000 

205 

.203 

6  months 

June  I 

1880  to  Nov.  30, 

1880 

143,000 

223 

.221 

7  months 

June  I 

1880  to  Dec.  31, 

1880 

147,000 

230 

.227 

8  months 

June  I 

1880  to  Jan.    31, 

1881 

181,000 

283 

.280 

9  months 

May  I 

1880  to  Jan.    31, 

1881 

219,000 

342 

•339 

10  months 

April  I 

1880  to  Jan.    31, 

1881 

312,000 

487 

.483 

II  months 

Mar.  I 

1880  to  Jan.    31, 

1881 

409,000 

639 

•633 

I  year 

Mar.  I 

1880  to  Feb.   28, 

1881 

497,000 

777 

.769 

2  years 

Feb.   I 

1882  to  Jan.    31, 

1884 

687,000 

1,073 

1.063 

3  years 

Mar.  I 

1880  to  Feb.   28, 

1883 

764,000 

1,194 

1. 182 

4  years 

Feb.    I 

1880  to  Jan.    31, 

1884 

735,000 

1,148 

I-I37 

5  years 

Jan.    I 

1879  to  Dec.  31, 

1883 

769,000 

1,202 

1. 190 

6  years 

Oct.    I 

1879  to  Sept.  30, 

1885 

803,000 

1,255 

1.242 

7  years 

Jan.    I 

1879  to  Dec.  31, 

1885 

839,000 

1,311 

1.298 

8  years 

Jan.    I 

1879  to  Dec.  31, 

1886 

870,000 

1,359 

1.346 

9  years 

Jan.    I 

1879  to  Dec.  31, 

1887 

902,000 

1,409 

1.396 

10  years 

April  I 

1878  to  Mar.  31, 

1888 

944,000 

1,475 

1. 46 1 

II  years 

Jan.    I 

187s  to  Dec.  31, 

1885 

968,000 

1,512 

1.498 

12  years 

Jan.    I 

1875  to  Dec.  31, 

1886 

978,000 

1,528 

1-513 

13  years 

Jan.    I 

1875  to  Dec.  31, 

1887 

991,000 

1,548 

1-533 

14  years 

Jan.    I 

1875  to  Dec.  31, 

1888 

1,042,000 

1,628 

1.612 

15  years 

Jan.    I 

1875  to  Dec.  31, 

1889 

1,065,000 

1,664 

1.648 

16  years 

Jan.    I 

187s  to  Dec.  31, 

1890 

1,079,000 

1,686 

1.670 

With  such  a  vast  difference  in  the  average  daily  flow  during  the 
dryest  month  and  the  dryest  year,  and  also  in  the  flow  during  the 
dryest  year  and  a  long  series  of  years,  it  is  obvious  that  the  quan- 
tity of  water  which  can  be  made  available  from  a  given  water- 


no 


STATE  SANITATION 


shed  depends  very  much  upon  the  amount  which  can  be  stored  in 
seasons  when  water  is  abundant  for  use  during  seasons  of  drought. 
It  is  feasible  to  deduce  from  the  Sudbury  River  records  a  table 
which  will  show  directly  the  amount  of  storage  necessary  to  make 
available  different  quantities  of  water  per  day  from  each  square 
mile  of  watershed,^  where  the  conditions  are  similar  to  those 

Table  i6 

Table  showing  the  Amount  of  Storage  reqxjired  to  make  Available  Differ- 
ent Daily  Volumes  of  Water  per  Square  Mile  of  Watershed,^  based 
upon  the  Records  of  the  Flow  of  Sudbury  River  from  1875  to  1890, 
inclusive 


Daily  Vol- 
ume per 

Storage  required 
per  Square  Mile 

to  prevent  a 
Deficiency  in  the 
Season  of  Great- 
est Drought 
when  the  Daily 
Consumption  of 
Water  is  as  Indi- 
cated in  the  First 
Column 

Dates  when  Greatest  Draught  from 

Reservoir  would  have  occurred  during 

the  Period.     1875-1890 

Length  of  Time 

Reservoir 
would  have  been 

Square  Mile 

Beginning  of 
Draught 

upon 
Reservoir 

Lowest  Point 
Reached 

Reservoir 
Full  Again 

High  Water 
Mark 

GaUons 

Gallons 

100,000 

2,200,000 

Sept.  1884 

Oct. 

1884 

Nov. 

1884 

3  months 

150,000 

5,300,000 

Sept.  1884 

Oct. 

1884 

Dec. 

1884 

4  months 

200,000 

11,000,000 

June,  1880 

Dec. 

1880 

Feb. 

1881 

9  months 

250,000 

22,000,000 

June,  1880 

Dec. 

1880 

Feb. 

1881 

9  months 

300,000 

33,000,000 

June,  1880 

Dec. 

1880 

Feb. 

1881 

9  months 

400,000 

54,000,000 

June,  1880 

Dec. 

1880 

Mar. 

1881 

10  months 

500,000 

78,000,000 

June,  1880 

Jan. 

1881 

Mar. 

1881 

10  months 

600,000 

105,000,000 

May,  1880 

Jan. 

1881 

Mar. 

1881 

1 1  months 

700,000 

156,000,000 

June,  1882 

Dec. 

1883 

Mar. 

1884 

I  yx.  10  mos. 

800,000 

214,000,000 

June,  1882 

Dec. 

1883 

April, 

1884 

I  yr.  II  mos. 

900,000 

373,000,000 

June,  1879 

Dec. 

1883 

May, 

1887 

8  years 

1,000,000 

540,000,000 

June,  1879 

Dec. 

1883 

Mar. 

1890 

loyrs.  lomos. 

1,024,000 

596,000,000 

June,  1879 

Oct. 

1885 

May, 

1890 

1 1  years 

which  exist  at  Sudbury  River.  A  table  of  this  character  is  given 
above,  which,  in  addition  to  the  amount  of  storage  required, 
gives  the  length  of  time  the  reservoir  would  have  been  below  high 
water  mark  during  the  dryest  period  of  the  given  duration,  and 

^  The  area  of  the  Sudbury  River  watershed,  as  used  for  making  up  the  records^ 
includes  both  land  and  water  surfaces. 

2  Including  water  surfaces  amounting  to  2.31  per  cent  of  the  land  surface. 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     iii 

the  date  when  the  water  in  the  reservoir  would  have  reached  its 
lowest  level. 

Having  deduced  from  the  Sudbury  River  records  the  facts  given 
in  the  last  table,  we  have  next  to  consider  to  what  extent  they  are 
apphcable  to  other  watersheds.  It  may  be  said  in  a  general  way 
that  the  dry  weather  flow  of  different  streams  per  square  mile  of 
watershed,  without  artificial  storage,  is  hable  to  differ  greatly; 
but  that  the  total  yearly  flow  does  not  vary  nearly  as  much.  In 
many  cases  it  will  be  found,  by  applying  the  Sudbury  River 
records  directly,  that  there  is  so  great  a  difference  between  the 
estimated  yield  and  the  amount  of  water  required  that  any  further 
refinement  is  unnecessary.  In  other  cases  it  is  necessary  to  take 
into  account  everything  which  may  affect  the  application  of  these 
records.  The  chief  causes  of  variation  in  the  yield  of  different 
watersheds  per  square  mile,  after  taking  into  account  the  in- 
fluence of  storage,  are:  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  its  distribution 
throughout  the  year,  the  area  of  water  surfaces,  the  character  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground  as  regards  topography  and  material, 
and  the  size  of  the  watershed.  There  is  also  another  feature 
which  frequently  requires  consideration,  particularly  with  small 
and  steep  watersheds;  namely,  the  loss  of  water  by  leakage  past 
dams  and  by  filtration  through  the  ground  to  a  lower  level. 

The  conditions  which  existed  upon  the  Sudbury  River  water- 
shed during  the  time  included  in  the  records  were  as  follows :  The 
area  of  the  watershed  from  which  the  flow  was  measured  was 
77.764  square  miles  until  the  end  of  1878,  then  78.238  square 
miles  until  the  end  of  1880,  and  after  that  time  75.199  square 
miles.  These  areas  include  all  water  surfaces.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  observations  until  the  end  of  1878,  the  water  surfaces 
consisted  of  Farm  Pond,  Whitehall  Pond  (which  was  flowed  in 
winter  and  drawn  down  in  summer),  several  mill  ponds,  and  the 
various  streams.  The  area  of  these  combined  water  surfaces  was 
equal  to  i  .02  per  cent  of  the  land  surfaces.  The  construction  of 
artificial  storage  reservoirs  has  since  increased  the  area  of  water 
surfaces.  Three  reservoirs  were  completed  and  filled  in  1879, 
making  the  total  area  of  water  surfaces  after  this  date,  until  1886, 
2.31  per  cent  of  the  land  surfaces.    In  1886,  Reservoir  No.  4  was 


112  STATE  SANITATION 

added,  increasing  the  per  cent  of  water  surfaces  to  2.92.  The 
dryest  periods  occurred  between  the  years  1879  and  1886,  and  it 
may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the  water  surfaces  of  Sudbury 
River  which  had  the  most  effect  upon  the  present  records  were 
2.31  per  cent  of  the  land  area. 

The  flow  of  the  river  past  the  lowest  dam  has  been  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  use  of  the  artificial  reservoirs;  but  this  does  not  appear 
in  the  records,  because  the  amount  flowing  past  the  dam  is  cor- 
rected by  the  amount  added  to  or  drawn  from  storage.  The 
object  in  making  these  corrections  has  been  to  eliminate  the  effect 
of  the  reservoirs  and  to  present  in  the  records  the  natural  flow  of 
the  stream  modified  only  by  such  storage  as  is  furnished  by  ordi- 
nary mill  ponds  and  by  Whitehall  Pond.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
said  that  the  effect  of  the  reservoirs  is  wholly  eliminated,  because 
the  evaporation  from  the  increased  water  surfaces  is  not  taken 
into  account;  and  the  dry  weather  flows  recorded  are  conse- 
quently less  than  they  would  be  if  these  reservoirs  did  not  exist. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  upon  the  Sudbury  River  water- 
shed is  nearly  the  same  as  that  in  other  parts  of  the  state,  so  that 
it  is  not  often  necessary  to  take  into  account  any  difference  of  this 
kind. 

The  watershed  of  the  Sudbury  River  contains  many  hills  with 
steep  slopes,  some  of  which  are  used  for  pasturage  and  others  are 
covered  with  a  small  growth  of  wood.  The  valleys,  as  a  rule,  are 
not  steep,  and  there  are  extensive  areas  of  swampy  land,  generally 
covered  with  a  growth  of  brush  and  trees.  The  hills  are,  for  the 
most  part,  of  rather  impervious  clayey  material,  containing 
boulders,  while  the  flat  land  is  sandy  and  in  some  cases  gravelly. 

The  special  characteristics  of  the  Sudbury  River  watershed 
have  thus  been  described  in  detail,  so  that  in  applying  the  results 
to  other  watersheds  such  modifications  could  be  made  as  would 
be  rendered  necessary  by  the  difference  in  conditions. 

In  this  paper  further  consideration  will  be  given  only  to  the 
effect  of  a  varying  percentage  of  water  surfaces  upon  the  yield  of 
watersheds,  and  to  the  flow  during  short  periods  of  drought. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  water  surfaces  it  has  been  a  common 
practice  to  leave  them  out  of  consideration  in  estimating  the  area 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     113 

of  a  watershed,  upon  the  assumption  that  the  evaporation  from 
water  surfaces  offsets  the  rainfall  upon  them.  The  Sudbury  River 
records,  however,  were  not  made  upon  this  basis,  and  they  are 
therefore  strictly  appHcable  only  to  watersheds  which  have  the 
same  proportion  of  water  surfaces,  unless  a  correction  is  made  for 
evaporation. 

A  table  will  be  presented  subsequently  which  gives  the  yield  per 
square  mile  of  land  surface,  when  in  addition  to  the  land  there  is  a 
var3dng  percentage  of  water  surfaces.  Before  presenting  this 
table,  however,  it  may  be  well  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  the 
relation  of  the  evaporation  from  water  surfaces  to  the  rainfall 
upon  them. 

For  determining  the  amount  of  evaporation,  the  most  valu- 
able information  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  paper  ^  presented  by 
Desmond  FitzGerald,  C.E.,  to  the  American  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers, based  upon  experiments  made  upon  the  Boston  Water 
Works,  chiefly  at  Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir,  Boston.  In  his  paper, 
as  the  result  of  several  years'  experiments,  a  mean  evaporation 
for  each  month  of  the  year  is  given.  By  comparing  this  with  the 
mean  rainfall  for  each  month,  we  can  obtain  the  relation  between 
evaporation  and  rainfall  in  an  ordinary  year;  and  as  the  evapo- 
ration does  not  vary  very  much  from  year  to  year,  we  can  also 
obtain  approximately  the  relation  between  the  evaporation  and 
rainfall  in  a  dry  year,  by  comparing  the  average  evaporation  with 
the  rainfall  in  a  dry  year  Like  1883. 

The  results  of  these  comparisons  are  shown  by  the  table  and 
diagram  on  the  pages  following. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  facts  presented  that  the  monthly  rain- 
fall varies  much  less  during  the  year  than  the  evaporation;  also 
that  in  an  average  year  the  rainfall  is  6.68  inches  greater  than  the 
evaporation.  The  average  year  may  be  divided  into  two  periods, 
one  extending  from  May  to  September,  inclusive,  in  which  the 
evaporation  is  8.77  inches  greater  than  the  rainfall;  and  the  other 
extending  from  October  to  April,  inclusive,  in  which  the  rainfall 
exceeds  the  evaporation  by  15.45  inches. 

^  "Evaporation,"  by  Desmond  FitzGerald,  C.E.,  Transactions  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  XV,  1886,  p.  581. 


114 


STATE  SANITATION 


In  the  year  of  low  rainfall  the  evaporation  was  6.34  inches 
greater  than  the  rainfall.  During  the  warmer  months,  from  April 
to  September,  inclusive,  the  excess  of  evaporation  was  15.22 
inches,  and  during  the  other  six  months  the  rainfall  was  8.88 
inches  in  excess  of  the  evaporation.    These  figures  indicate  that  a 


Table  17 
Table  showing  Relation  of  Evaporation  to  Rainfall 

(Note. \-  indicates  excess  of  rainfall;   —  indicates  deficiency) 


Month 


Average  Year 


Rainfall 


Evapora- 
tion 


Excess 

or 

Deficiency 

of 

Rainfall 


Year  of  Low  Rainfall 


Rainfall 


Evapora- 
tion 


Excess 

or 

Deficiency 

of 
Rainfall 


January  . . 
February  . 
March ... 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August.  .  . 
September 
October.  . 
November 
December . 


Inches 
4.18 
4.06 
4.58 
3-32 
3.20 
2.99 
3-78 
4-23 
3-23 
4.41 
4.11 
3-71 


Inches 
0.98 
1. 01 
1-45 
2-39 
3.82 

5-34 
6.21 

5-97 
4.86 

3-47 
2.24 

1.38 


Inches 
+  3.20 

+  3-05 
+3-13 
+0-93 
—  0.62 
-2.25 

-2.43 
-1.74 
-1.63 
+0.94 
+  1.87 
+  2.33 


Inches 
2.81 
3.86 
1.78 
I.8S 
4.18 
2.40 
2.68 
0.74 
1.52 
5.60 
1.81 
3-55 


Inches 
0.98 
1. 01 
1-45 
2-39 
3-82 
S-34 
6.21 

5-97 
4.86 

3-47 
2.24 
1.38 


45.80 


39.12 


+6. 


32.78 


39.12 


Inches 
+  1.83 
+  2.85 

+0-33 
-0-S4 
+0.36 

-2.94 
-3-53 
-5-23 
-3-34 

+  2.13 

-0.43 

+  2.17 


-6.34 


pond  will  not  lower  by  evaporation  in  a  dry  summer  more  than 
about  fifteen  inches,  even  if  it  receives  no  water  from  its  water- 
shed. 

In  order  to  present  in  the  most  convenient  form  the  yield  of 
watersheds  per  square  mile,  the  following  table  has  been  pre- 
pared, which  gives  the  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  made 
available  per  square  mile  of  watershed  (estimating  land  surfaces 
only),  with  var3dng  amounts  of  storage  and  a  varying  percentage 
of  water  surfaces.  In  preparing  the  table  the  records  of  the  flow 
of  Sudbury  River  and  of  the  rainfall  upon  the  Sudbury  River 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     115 


^an.     rcb.     maft.    apr.    may-  june  july   aug-.  scpt.    oct.    nov     occ 

Fig.  3.    Diagram  showing  the  Relation  of  Evaporation  to  Rainfall 

Note. — The  curved  lines  show  the  average  evaporation  in  inches  per  month,  and  the  horizontal 
lines  the  rainfall,  also  in  inches,  per  month.  The  finer  hatching  indicates  the  excess  of  rainfall,  and 
the  coarser  hatching  the  excess  of  evaporation. 


ii6 


STATE  SANITATION 


watershed  from  1875  to  1890,  inclusive,  have  been  used;  also  the 
records  of  evaporation  from  water  surfaces  from  observations 
made  chiefly  at  Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir  during  the  years  1876 
to  1880  and  1885  to  1887.  For  other  years,  when  the  evapora- 
tion was  not  measured,  the  average  evaporation  has  been  used. 
The  flow  per  square  mile  is  in  all  cases  the  smallest  recorded 
after  taking  into  account  the  evaporation  from  water  surfaces. 


Table  18 

Table  showing  the  Amount  of  Storage  required  to  make  Available  Differ- 
ent Daily  Volumes  of  Water  per  Square  Mile  of  Watershed  (estimat- 
ing Land  Surfaces  only),  corrected  for  the  Effect  of  Evaporation 
and  Rainfall  on  Varying  Percentages  of  Water  Surfaces,  not  included 
IN  estimating  the  Area  of  the  Watershed 


Daily  Vol- 
ume in  Gals. 

per  Square 

Mile  of  Land 

Surface 

Storage  required  in  Gallons  per  Square  Mile  of  Land  Surface  to  prevent  a  Deficiency 

in  the  Season  of  Greatest  Drought  when  the  Daily  Consumption  is  as  indicated  in 

the  First  Column,  with  the  following  Percentages  of  Water  Surfaces 

0% 

3% 

6% 

10% 

25% 

100,000 

556,000 

3,000,000 

8,800,000 

150,000 

3,400,000 

7,100,000 

13,400,000 

200,000 

9,400,000 

11,700,000 

18,000,000 

250,000 

19,000,000 

22,200,000 

25,400,000 

300,000 

29,800,000 

33,000,000 

36,100,000 

400,000 

52,000,000 

54,400,000 

57,500,000 

.. 

500,000 

76,500,000 

77,300,000 

80,300,000 

600,000 

102,000,000 

104,600,000 

107,100,000 

112,800,000 

700,000 

144,400,000 

153,000,000 

161,600,000 

170,700,000 

215,9 

D0,000 

800,000 

202,300,000 

210,900,000 

219,500,000 

228,600,000 

273,8 

D0,000 

900,000 

346,200,000 

349,200,000 

352,200,000 

353,900,000 

381,6 

D0,000 

1,000,000 

514,600,000 

516,700,000 

519,700,000 

523,600,000 

532,2 

DO, 000 

The  table  shows  that  a  daily  yield  of  1,000,000  gallons  per 
square  mile  of  land  surface  can  be  made  available  when  there  is  a 
very  large  amount  of  storage,  such  as  may  be  found  in  some  in- 
stances where  a  large  pond  is  fed  by  a  very  smaU  watershed.  To 
obtain  this  quantity,  however,  would  require  the  reservoir  to  be 
below  high  water  mark  for  eleven  years;  and  during  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  time  the  water  would  not  rise  nearly  to  high 
water  mark,  even  in  the  spring.  In  practice  this  would  be  objec- 
tionable as  it  would  permit  the  growth  of  weeds,  grasses  and 


SELECTION  OF  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY     117 

bushes  on  the  exposed  shores  of  the  reservoir.  Taking  everything 
into  account  it  may  be  said  that  the  greatest  amount  which  can 
be  made  practically  available  from  a  square  mile  of  watershed 
does  not  exceed  900,000  gallons  per  day,  and  the  cases  are  very 
rare  in  which  more  than  600,000  gallons  per  square  mile  per  day 
can  be  made  available  when  it  is  necessary  to  store  the  water  in 
artificial  reservoirs. 

As  a  matter  of  theoretical  interest  only,  it  may  be  said  that  to 
make  available  the  average  yield  of  the  Sudbury  River  water- 
shed for  the  entire  sixteen  years  (1,079,000  gallons  per  day  per 
square  mile)  would  require  a  storage  capacity  of  not  less  than 
725,000,000  gallons  per  square  mile.  This  is  about  six  times  the 
amount  of  storage  which  it  is  now  considered  feasible  to  provide 
on  this  watershed. 

The  amount  of  water  which  can  be  made  available  from  a  given 
watershed  will  not  always  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  water 
which  can  be  stored,  because  considerations  of  quahty  require 
that  the  levels  of  the  reservoir  should  not  be  made  to  fluctuate 
too  much,  and  that  the  reservoir  should  not  be  drawn  below 
high  water  mark  for  too  long  a  time. 

The  application  in  actual  practice  of  the  previous  table  may 
be  better  understood  by  giving  an  example.  Let  us  assume 
that  it  is  desired  to  know  the  yield  of  a  pond  having  an  area 
of  0.15  of  a  square  mile  and  an  available  storage  capacity  of 
225,000,000  gallons,  which  has  draining  into  it  1.5  square  miles 
of  land  surface.  The  amount  of  storage  in  this  case  would  be 
equivalent  to  150,000,000  gallons  per  square  mile  of  land  surface, 
and  the  water  surface  would  equal  ten  per  cent  of  the  land  surface. 
By  looking  in  the  column  of  the  table  headed  ten  per  cent  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  storage  of  150,000,000  gallons  per  square  mile  corre- 
sponds to  a  daily  volume  of  between  600,000  and  700,000  gallons 
per  square  mile,  or  more  exactly  by  proportion  to  660,000  gallons, 
equal  to  990,000  gallons  daily  for  the  whole  watershed.  The 
results  obtained  by  this  method  will  in  some  cases  be  practically 
correct.  In  other  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  account  of 
local  conditions,  prominent  among  which  may  be  leakage  past  a 
dam  or  filtration  through  the  ground  to  lower  levels;    and  the 


ii8  STATE  SANITATION 

application  of  judgment  will  often  be  necessary  to  determine 
whether  the  watershed  under  consideration  will  yield  the  same 
or  a  greater  or  less  amount  per  square  mile  than  that  of  the  Sud- 
bury River. 

The  only  point  remaining  to  be  considered  with  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  surface  water  relates  to  the  flow  from  watersheds 
during  short  periods  of  extreme  drought.  The  flow  during  such 
periods  is  chiefly  of  importance  when  it  is  desired  to  know  the 
minimum  flow  of  streams  on  which  little  or  no  storage  can  be 
obtained.  On  such  watersheds  the  water  surfaces  are  generally 
insignificant,  so  that  the  Sudbury  River  records  are  not  applicable 
unless  they  are  corrected  for  evaporation.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  natural  dry  weather  flow  of  streams  per  square  mile  depends 
much  upon  the  extent  of  the  watershed;  because  it  is  frequently 
observed  that  streams  draim'ng  but  a  small  area  dry  up  in  sum- 
mer, while  those  draining  large  areas  continue  to  flow,  though 
with  a  greatly  reduced  volume.  There  is  also  a  large  variation  in 
the  dry  weather  flow  from  watersheds  of  the  same  size  due  to  the 
amount  of  water  stored  in  the  ground  and  subsequently  coming 
out  in  the  form  of  springs.  The  records  of  the  natural  flow  of 
streams  in  a  very  dry  period  are  very  meagre.  The  lowest  flow  of 
the  Sudbury  River  occurred  during  the  month  of  September, 
1884,  and  averaged  only  44,000  gallons  daily  per  square  mile  of 
watershed.  Correcting  for  the  excess  of  the  evaporation  from 
water  surfaces  over  the  rainfall  upon  them,  we  obtain  97,000  ^ 
gallons  per  square  mile  as  the  amount  that  the  flow  would  have 
been  if  there  had  been  no  water  surfaces.  The  next  lowest 
monthly  record  was  in  September,  1877,  60,000  gallons  per  square 
mile.  At  this  date  the  reservoirs  had  not  been  constructed  and 
the  area  of  water  surfaces  to  be  corrected  for  evaporation  was 
smaller.  Making  the  correction  we  have  as  the  flow  per  square 
mile  82,000  gallons  per  day. 

^  This  quantity  is  somewhat  larger  than  it  should  be  as  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
water  which  came  from  the  ground  adjoining  the  reservoirs  as  they  were  being 
drawn  down  to  supply  the  city. 


XIII 

THE  GROWTH  OF  CHILDREN  STUDIED  BY  GALTON'S 
METHOD  OF  PERCENTILE  GRADES 

By  H.  P.  BowDiTCH,  M.D. 

[This  is  but  a  partial  reprint  of  Dr.  Bowditch's  admirable  paper.  Because  of 
their  length  the  tables  are  omitted,  as  well  as  many  of  the  diagrams.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  observe  that  the  method  of  statistical  analysis  here  used  has  been  recently 
taken  up  by  engineers  in  the  study  of  rainfall  and  stream-flows,  and  by  sanitarians 
in  the  study  of  bacteriological  data.  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1890,  p.  479. 
—  G.  C.  W.] 

In  the  last  report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health 
the  advantages  of  discussing  statistical  data  by  Galton's  method  ^ 
of  percentile  grades  were  explained  and  illustrated  in  a  paper  en- 
titled "  The  Physique  of  Women  in  Massachusetts."  The  value 
of  the  method  in  anthropometrical  work  seemed  so  obvious  that 
it  has  been  thought  desirable  to  apply  it  to  the  large  body  of 
observations  on  the  height  and  weight  of  Boston  school  children 
which  formed  the  basis  of  an  article  on  "  The  Growth  of  Chil- 
dren," published  by  the  Board  of  Health  in  1877. 

In  this  article,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Charles  Roberts,  tables 
were  given  showing  the  distribution  of  the  observations;  i.  e.,  the 
number  of  individuals  at  each  age  whose  height  was  recorded  at 
each  successive  inch  or  whose  weight  fell  within  successive  groups 
of  four  pounds  each.  From  these  tables  it  was  easy  to  calculate 
the  values  at  the  various  percentile  grades.  For  example,  it 
appears  that  the  heights  of  848  boys  between  five  and  six  years 
old  were  distributed  as  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

In  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  five  per  cent,  for  instance,  of  the 
total  number  of  observations  is  42.4.  Now  since  the  observations 
corresponding  to  each  successive  inch  include  all  the  measure- 
ments between  that  inch  and  the  next  inch  above,  it  is  evident 
that  there  are  i-fi-f-7  +  17  =  26  individuals  less  than  38  inches 
in  height  and  1-I-1  +  7  +  17-I-42  =  68  individuals  less  than  39 

^  See  "  Galton,  Natural  Inheritance,"  London,  McMillan  &  Co.,  1889. 


I20 


STATE  SANITATION 


inches  in  height.  Since,  therefore,  42.4  lies  between  26  and  68  it 
follows  that  the  height  below  which  five  per  cent  of  the  observa- 
tions fall  must  be  between  38  and  39  inches.  The  exact  height  can 
readily  be  calculated  by  interpolation.  Thus  the  fraction  of  an 
inch  to  be  added  to  38  to  give  the  required  height  is  obtained  by 
dividing  16.4  (i.  e.,  42.4  —  26)  by  42  (i.  e.,  the  number  of  observa- 

Table  19 

Distribution  of  Observations  on  Heights  of  Boston  Schoolboys. 
Age  at  Last  Birthday  Five  Years 


Inches 

Number  of 
Observations 

Inches 

Number  of 
Observations 

Inches 

Number  of 
Observations 

47 
46 

45 
44 
43 
42 

4 

8 

20 

62 

119 

149 

41 
40 

39 
38 
37 
36 

190 
149 

79 
42 

17 

7 

35 
34 
33 
32 
31 
30 

Total  number  of  observations . 


tions  between  38  and  39  inches).  This  fraction  is  0.39,  and, 
therefore,  38.39  inches  is  the  height  below  which  five  per  cent  and 
above  which  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  observations  fall;  i.  e., 
it  is  the  value  of  the  five  per  cent  grade. 

In  this  way  tables  i  to  12  have  been  calculated  from  tables  4  to 
15  inclusive  of  the  original  article.^  These  tables  show  the  heights 
and  weights  of  Boston  school  children  of  both  sexes  and  various 
ages  at  percentile  grades  varying  from  five  per  cent  to  ninety-five 
per  cent.  Separate  tables  are,  moreover,  given  for  children  of 
American  parentage,  Irish  parentage,  and  for  the  whole  number 
of  observations  irrespective  of  nationality.  The  values  are  given 
in  both  the  English  and  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures,  and  in  the  last  column  of  each  table  are  to  be  found 
the  average  heights  and  weights  of  children  of  each  age  as  given 
in  the  original  article. 

The  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  a  study  of  these 
tables  will  be  best  understood  after  an  examination  of  the  curves 


^  These  tables  are  not  here  reproduced. 


GALTON'S  METHOD  OF  GRADES 


121 


which  have  been  constructed  from  them,  and  as  a  preliminary  to 
this  study  it  will  be  well  to  consider  briefly  the  general  character 
of  curves  representing  values  at  various  percentile  grades. 

A  geometrical  construction  of  a  special  case  will  perhaps  best 
serve  to  place  the  matter  in  a  clear  hght.  Let  us  suppose  one 
thousand  grown  men  standing  in  line  arranged  according  to 
height.  The  heads  of  these  men  will  form  a  curved  hne  repre- 
sented in  its  general  form  by  the  curve  ST  in  Fig.  4.  In  this  dia- 
gram the  line  SO  represents  the  height  of  the  shortest  and  the  line 


Q      5%  107.       2Q'l      307      40%      50%      60%      70%      80%      90-/95%  Q* 

Fig.  4 

TO^  that  of  the  tallest  man.  The  curve  ST,  representing  the 
heights  of  the  intermediate  men,  is  approximately  a  straight  Hne 
in  a  large  part  of  its  course  but  bends  up  sharply  at  the  right  and 
down  sharply  at  the  left  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  few  very  tall 
and  a  few  very  short  men.  Mediocrity  is  the  rule  and  extremes 
the  exception  in  height  as  in  everything  else. 

If  now  we  divide  this  row  of  men  into  two  equal  parts  and  as- 
certain the  height  of  the  five  hundredth  man  in  the  row  (or,  more 
accurately  speaking,  the  height  half  way  between  that  of  the  five 
hundredth  and  that  of  the  five  hundred  and  first  man)  we  shall 
have  a  value  below  which  one  half  and  above  which  the  other  haK 


122  STATE  SANITATION 

of  the  observations  lie.  This  value  is  termed  by  Galton  the  value 
of  the  fifty  percentile  grade,  or  the  median  value,  and  is  desig- 
nated by  the  letter  M.  In  the  same  way  the  values  at  other  per- 
centile grades  may  be  determined  by  dividing  the  row  at  points 
corresponding  to  various  percentages  of  the  total  number  of  ob- 
servations. The  percentile  grades  indicated  in  Fig.  4  are  those 
adopted  by  Galton,  and  are  practically  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
character  of  the  curve.  With  a  very  large  number  of  observations 
it  would  of  course  be  possible  to  determine  values  below  five  per 
cent  and  above  ninety-five  per  cent,  but  in  anthropometrical 
investigations  with  existing  data  it  does  not  seem  wise  to  go 
beyond  these  limits. 

It  is  evident  that  the  value  M  will  tend  to  approximate  to  the 
average  value  of  aU  the  observations  and  will  be  identical  with  it 
when  the  curve  ST  is  symmetrically  disposed  on  both  sides  of  M, 
i.  e.,  when  the  values  at  sixty,  seventy,  eighty,  ninety  and  ninety- 
five  per  cent  exceed  M  by  the  same  amount,  respectively,  by 
which  the  values  at  forty,  thirty,  twenty,  ten  and  five  per  cent  fall 
short  of  it.  If  A  represents  the  average  value  of  all  the  observa- 
tions, then  the  value  of  M  —  A  will  be  a  measure  of  the  direction 
and  extent  of  the  asymmetry  of  the  curve  ST,  for  this  value  wiU  be 
zero  when  the  curve  is  symmetrical,  positive  when  the  values  at 
the  lower  percentile  grades  fall  short  of  M  more  than  those  at  the 
higher  grades  exceed  it,  and  negative  when  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

Let  us  now  apply  this  test  to  the  data  in  our  possession,  confin- 
ing our  attention  for  the  present  to  tables  i,  4,  7  and  10,  which 
give  the  total  number  of  observations  irrespective  of  nationality. 
By  subtracting  the  average  from  the  median  values  in  these  four 
tables  the  table  on  the  next  page  (No.  20)  has  been  constructed. 

An  examination  of  this  table  or  of  the  curves  constructed  from 
it,  as  given  in  Figures  5  and  6,  shows  that  the  asymmetry  of  the 
curves  of  percentile  grades  varies  very  much,  at  different  ages,  both 
in  direction  and  amount.  The  variation  in  the  value  of  M  —  A 
in  the  curves  of  height  is  much  the  same  as  that  in  the  curves  of 
weight  for  each  sex  considered  by  itself,  but  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sexes.  This  difference  shows  itself  most  dis- 
tinctly between  the  ages  of  eleven  and  fifteen  years.    During  this 


GALTON'S  METHOD  OF  GRADES 


123 


time  a  rise  in  the  curves  for  the  males  coincides  with  a  fall  in  those 
for  the  females,  while  before  and  after  this  period  the  curves,  as  a 
rule,  rise  and  fall  together.  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that 
the  rate  of  annual  increase  both  in  height  and  weight  is  different 
at  different  percentile  grades,  or,  in  other  words,  that  large  chil- 
dren grow  differently  from  small  ones,  and  moreover,  that  between 
the  ages  of  eleven  and  fifteen  years  there  is  a  striking  difference  in 


Table  20 
Values  of  M — A 


Age  at  Last  Birthday 


Heights  in  Inches 


Boys 


Girls 


Weights  in  Pounds 


Boys 


Girls 


Five 

Six 

Seven .  .  .  , 
Eight .... 
Nine .... 

Ten 

Eleven. .  . 
Twelve .  . 
Thirteen . 
Fourteen . 
Fifteen.  .  . 
Sixteen .  . 
Seventeen 
Eighteen . 


+  o.io 
+  0.12 
+  0.09 
+  0.08 
+  0.08 
+  0.05 
+  0.07 
0.00 

—  0.23 

-  0.28 
+  0.07 

+  0-35 
+  0.05 
+  0.13 


+  0.14 
+  0.05 
+  o.ii 
+  0.07 
+  0.17 
+  0.12 

—  O.OI 

0.00 

-f  0.24 
+  0.26 

+  O.II 

+  0.19 
+  0.26 

—  O.IO 


+ 


0.13 
0.15 

0.17 

0-3S 
0.28 
0.12 
0.44 
1.18 
1.94 
1.88 
1. 10 

0.37 
0.92 
0.84 


-  0.03 

-  0.17 

-  0.16 
-0-59 

-  0.4s 

-  0-95 

-  1.22 

-  1-23 

-  0.63 
-0.68 

-  0.97 

-  0.76 

-  2.77 

-  2.52 


the  mode  of  growth  of  the  two  sexes.  The  significance  of  this 
conclusion  will  be  made  clearer  by  an  examination  of  the  curves 
constructed  directly  from  the  tables  of  percentile  grades.  Curves 
of  this  sort  are  presented  in  Figures  7,  8,  9  and  10,  containing  the 
total  number  of  observations  irrespective  of  nationality.  Similar 
curves  have  been  obtained  from  the  remaining  tables  in  which 
the  observations  are  grouped  according  to  the  nationahty  of  the 
parents,  but  as  they  are  less  regular,  owing  to  the  smaller  num- 
ber of  observations  from  which  they  are  constructed,  and  lead  to 
no  additional  conclusions,  it  has  not  been  thought  worth  while  to 
present  them. 


124 


STATE  SANITATION 


0.4 


0.2 


0.2 


0.4 


AGE    AT    LAST    BIRTHDAY 
5        6        7        8        9        10        tl        12       13        14       15       l6       t7        iS 


/ 

/ 

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BOY 

'^ 

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GIRL 

Fig.  5.    Heights  of  Boston  School  Children 
Median  Minus  Average  Values  (M-A) 


AGE    AT   LAST    BIRTHDAY 
5        6       7        8       9        10       II        12       B       14       15       16       17       18 


lA 

7- 

3 
0 

a. 

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3.0 

Fig.  6.    Weights  or  Boston  School  Children 
Median  Minus  Average  Values  (M-A) 


GALTON'S  METHOD  OF  GRADES 


125 


A  glance  at  the  curves  in  Figures  7-10  shows  at  once  the  na- 
ture of  the  asymmetry,  the  existence  of  which  is  indicated  by  the 
curves  in  Figures  5  and  6.  It  will  be  observed  that  during  the 
earher  years  of  school  hfe  the  curves  for  the  successive  years  are 


HEIGHT 
INCHES 


10 


20 


PERCENTILE     GRADES. 
30  40  50  60  70 


80 


90 


AGE 
YRS 


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17 

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Fig.  7.    Heights  of  Boston  Schoolboys 
Irrespective  of  Nationality 

fairly  symmetrical,  which  is  in  harmony  with  the  previous  obser- 
vation that  in  these  years  the  value  of  M  —  A  does  not  differ 
widely  from  zero.  At  about  ten  years  of  age  in  girls  and  eleven 
or  twelve  years  in  boys,  the  curves  become  distinctly  asymmet- 
rical, owing  to  the  values  increasing  more  rapidly  at  the  higher 
than  at  the  lower  percentile  grades.  At  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  years  in  girls  and  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  in  boys  an 


126 


STATE  SANITATION 


asymmetry  in  the  opposite  direction  shows  itself,  since  at  this 
period  the  values  are  increasing  more  rapidly  at  the  lower  than 
at  the  higher  percentile  grades.   These  changes  correspond  accur- 


WG'T     10 

20 

PERCENTILE  GRADES. 
30            40            50             60            70 

80 

90 

AGE 

LBS 

YR5 

170 

160 

17 

150 

y 

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140 

y^ 

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15 

130 

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Fig.  8.    Weights  of  Boston  Schoolboys 
Irrespective  of  Nationality 


ately  with  the  fall  and  rise  in  the  value  of  M  —  A,  as  shown  in 
Figures  5  and  6. 

In  the  original  article  on  the  growth  of  children  it  was  shown 
that  about  two  years  before  the  age  of  puberty  there  is  a  period  dur- 
ing which  the  growth  in  both  height  and  weight  shows  a  distinct 
acceleration.  Now,  the  rate  of  growth  at  the  various  percentile 
grades  is  represented  in  Figures  7-10  by  the  vertical  distances 


GALTON'S  METHOD  OF  GRADES 


127 


between  the  curves  corresponding  to  the  successive  years;  and 
an  inspection  of  these  curves  shows  that  the  prepubertal  period 
of  accelerated  growth,  already  shown  to  exist  by  a  comparison 


HEIGHT 
INCHES.     10 


20 


PERCENTILE   GRADES. 
30  40  50  60  70 


AGE 
80  90     YR5. 


68 

66 

,-** 

6 

5 

+ 

64 

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Fig.  9.    Heights  of  Boston  Schoolgirxs 
Irrespective  of  Nationality 


of  average  heights  and  weights  at  different  ages,  occurs  all  along 
the  line,  but  that  it  occurs  earlier  at  the  higher  than  at  the 
lower  percentile  grades.  In  other  words,  we  find  that  the  above- 
mentioned  variations  in  the  value  of  M  —  A  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  period  of  acceleration,  which  is  such  a  distinct  phenome- 
non in  the  growth  of  children,  occurs  at  an  earUer  age  in  large 
than  in  small  children. 


128 


STATE  SANITATION 


The  following  are  the  most  obvious  conclusions:  — 

1.  The  maximum  yearly  growth  in  both  height  and  weight  is 
at  all  percentile  grades  greater  in  boys  than  in  girls,  and  occurs 
in  boys  two  or  three  years  later  than  in  girls. 

2.  The  age  at  which  this  maximum  yearly  growth  in  height 
and  weight  is  reached  is,  in  both  sexes,  earlier  at  the  higher  than 


WG'T 

10 

20 

PERCENTILE    GRADES 
30           40            50           60           70 

80 

90 

AGE 

LBS. 

YRS. 

170 

160 

150 

140 

(7 

y 

\h 

130 

^' 

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15 

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— — • 

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Fig.  io.    Weights  of  Boston  Schoolgirls 
Irrespective  of  Nationality 

at  the  lower  percentile  grades,  the  range  being  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  years  for  girls  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  for 
boys.  In  other  words,  large  children  make  their  most  rapid 
growth  at  an  earlier  age  than  small  ones. 

3.   The  curves  representing  the  annual  growth  of  boys  are 
characterized  on  either  side  of  the  maximum  by  a  steeper  rise  and 


GALTON'S  METHOD  OF  GRADES  129 

fall  in  the  lower  than  in  the  higher  percentile  grades,  though  the 
maximum  itself  may  be  quite  as  high  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter 
grades.  This  indicates  that  the  above-mentioned  period  of  accel- 
erated growth  in  large  boys  differs  from  that  in  small  boys  rather 
in  duration  than  in  intensity.  In  girls  a  difference  of  this  sort 
does  not  seem  to  exist. 

4.  In  boys  at  eleven  years  of  age  there  is  a  period  of  remarkably 
slow  growth  both  in  height  and  weight,  the  curves  of  annual  in- 
crease in  nearly  all  the  percentile  grades  reaching  at  this  age  a 
lower  point  than  for  several  years  preceding  or  subsequent  to  this 
age.  In  girls  a  similar  but  less  marked  period  of  retarded  growth 
in  height  is  to  be  noticed  at  nine  years  of  age,  but  the  rate  of 
growth  in  weight  does  not  seem  to  suffer  a  corresponding  diminu- 
tion.^ 

Among  the  advantages  of  this  method  of  discussing  anthropo- 
metrical  results  may  be  mentioned  the  facility  which  it  affords  for 
comparing  the  rates  of  growth  of  children  of  different  nationalities 
by  determining  the  percentile  rank  of  the  average  children  of  one 
nationahty  referred  to  those  of  another  nationahty  as  a  standard. 
We  may  take,  for  instance,  the  observations  of  PagHani  ^  on 
ItaHan  children,  and  those  of  Erismann^  on  the  employees  in 
Russian  factories,  and  calculate  the  percentile  rank  of  the  children 
at  successive  ages  when  referred  to  Boston  children  as  a  standard. 
The  result  of  this  calculation  is  given  in  the  table  on  the  follow- 
ing page. 

An  examination  of  this  table  shows  that  ItaHan  children  of  both 
sexes  are,  in  early  life,  very  much  smaller  than  Boston  children  of 

^  It  is  interesting,  however,  to  notice  that  in  the  curves  constructed  by  Dr.  Ste- 
venson (see  Lancet,  Sept.  22,  1888)  from  English  and  American  statistics,  and 
representing  the  annual  increase  in  weight  of  "  boys  and  girls  of  the  English-speaking 
races,"  the  period  of  retarded  growth  is  a  marked  phenomenon  in  both  sexes,  occur- 
ring in  boys  at  eleven  and  in  girls  at  nine  years  of  age. 

See  also  Axel  Key,  Die.  Pubertatsentwickelung.  (Verhandlungen  des  X  inter- 
nationalen  medicinschen  Congresses,  Berlin,  1890.  Bd.  I,  p.  67.)  This  observer 
finds  that  in  Sweden  the  period  of  least  increase  in  height  and  weight  occurs  at  ten 
years  for  boys  and  nine  years  for  girls. 

2  "  Lo  SvUuppo  Umano,"  p.  37. 

'  "  Untersuchimgen  iiber  die  korperliche  Entwickelung  der  Fabrikarbeiter  in 
Zentralrussland,"  Tubingen,  1889.  A  very  thorough  investigation  based  upon 
measurements  of  over  100,000  individuals. 


I30 


STATE  SANITATION 


the  same  age,  and,  though  they  afterwards  increase  in  relative 
size,  they  never  reach  a  higher  percentile  than  31.4  for  boys  and 
32.4  for  girls. 

The  Russian  children  show  in  general,  with  increasing  age,  a 
progressive  diminution  in  percentile  rank  which  is  probably  to  be 


Table  21 

Showing  the  Percentile  Rank  of  Italian  and  Russian  Childeen 
compared  with  those  of  the  boston  public  schools 


Age  at  Last  Birthday 


Percentile  Rank 


Italian  (Pagliani) 


Boys 


Girls 


Russian  (Erismann) 


Boys 


Girls 


Five 

Six 

Seven. . .  . 
Eight.... 
Nine. . . . 

Ten 

Eleven. . . 
Twelve.  .  . 
Thirteen . 
Fourteen . 
Fifteen.  .  . 
Sixteen.  .  , 
Seventeen 
Eighteen . 


below  5 
S-6 
22.1 
26.5 

31-4 
20.0 
16.4 
16.1 
21.7 
21.2 

23-7 
16.2 

I3-I 
6.6 


below  5 

below  5 

9.2 

iS-8 

29.1 

28.0 

25-5 
24.1 

23-7 
30.0 

29-5 
32-4 
32.2 

34-3 


75-9 
56.6 
48.9 
40.6 

42.5 
36.6 
28.7 
26.5 
29.1 
17.7 
18.6 
15.0 


80.7 

63-4 
76.4 

51-9 
48.8 

39-0 
26.9 
22.8 
21.4 

23-4 

22.0 
23.6 


accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  during  the  earlier  period  of  life  only 
children  who  are  unusually  well  developed  physically  are  likely 
to  find  their  way  into  manufactories.  The  children  from  seven  to 
twelve  years  of  age  are  therefore  to  some  extent  selected  cases  and 
do  not  represent  the  average  development  of  the  working  popula- 
tion. 


XIV 

TYPHOID  FEVER  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  WATER 
SUPPLIES 

By  Hiram  F.  Mills,  A.M.,  C.E, 

[At  the  time  of  publication  the  facts  set  forth  in  Mr.  Mills'  paper  were  novel. 
They  are  still  of  great  interest.  The  correspondence  between  Mr.  Mills  and  the 
city  of  Lawrence,  which  preceded  the  construction  of  the  water  filter,  is  given  in  the 
original  paper,  but  not  here  reprinted.  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1890, p.  525. 
—  G.  C.  W.] 

Typhoid  fever  is  one  of  the  diseases  now  generally  attributed  to 
one  of  the  bacteria  known  as  the  typhoid  bacillus. 

Bacteria  are  very  minute  vegetable  growths,  and  this  species  is 
a  rod  with  rounded  ends,  the  diameter  being  about  one  thirty- 
thousandth  of  an  inch  and  the  length  about  one  ten-thousandth 
of  an  inch.  When  very  highly  magnified,  fine  hair  like  append- 
ages (cilia)  may  be  seen  extending  from  near  either  end. 

It  may  not  be  unreasonable  to  think  of  the  invisible  kingdom  of 
bacteria  as  consisting  of  as  many  species  as  the  visible  vegetable 
kingdom  and  all  of  them  doing  as  beneficent  work,  in  the  econ- 
omy of  nature,  as  the  trees  and  plants  which  we  see  around  us; 
but  there  is  a  small  fraction,  perhaps  comparable  with  the  smaU 
number  of  poisonous  plants,  which  are  disease  producing.  The 
number  actually  known  to  produce  disease  is  very  small,  and 
among  those  regarded  as  most  carefully  determined  is  the  typhoid 
bacillus. 

It  is  not  merely  held  that  this  germ  is  usually  associated  with 
typhoid  fever,  but  that  typhoid  fever  does  not  exist  when  this 
germ  is  not  in  the  system;  that  it  is  the  actual  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease. It  becomes  important  then  to  determine  how  it  can  get 
into  the  system,  and  under  what  conditions  it  can  live  outside  of 
the  human  body. 

These  questions  have  been  and  are  being  studied  with  care,  but 
there  is  much  yet  to  be  learned.    That  these  germs  may  be  taken 


132  STATE  SANITATION 

into  the  body  with  the  food  and  drink  appears  to  be  well  estab- 
lished. There  appears  to  be  no  good  ground  for  believing  that 
they  live  in  the  air  and  are  carried  from  place  to  place  by  winds; 
but  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  conclude  that  they  may  live  in  air 
long  enough  to  be  carried  with  dust  on  clothing  or  upon  the  per- 
son, from  one  sick-room  to  another,  or  from  the  sick-room  to  the 
kitchen,  or  to  be  blown  about  a  yard  where  slops  from  a  sick- 
room have  been  thrown,  or  blown  into  the  windows  of  a  sleeping- 
room  with  the  dust  from  a  privy  unfortunately  near. 

Cases  following  one  another  in  the  same  house  have  been  more 
readily  explained  by  such  communication  than  by  the  milk  or 
drinking  water  obtained  from  the  same  source  as  that  used  by 
neighbors  who  were  not  afflicted. 

Milk  has  been  regarded  as  an  excellent  food  for  the  typhoid 
bacillus.  When  sterilized  by  heat  so  that  all  other  bacteria  are 
killed,  the  t3^hoid  bacilU  added  to  it  have  been  found  to  increase 
one  thousand-fold  in  twenty-four  hours.  Recent  experiments  by 
the  Board  have  shown  an  increase  of  seventy-fold  in  steriHzed 
milk;  but  in  milk  received  from  a  milk  wagon  on  the  street  a 
certain  number  of  the  typhoid  bacillus  added  did  not  increase  but 
rather  decreased;  and  when  added  to  milk  drawn  directly  from 
the  cow,  either  in  the  usual  way  of  milking  or  through  a  sterilized 
tube,  there  was  no  marked  change  in  the  number  in  eight  hours, 
and  httle  if  any  increase  in  twenty-four  hours.  Many  cases  of 
prevailing  typhoid  fever  in  cities  have  been  limited  to  a  single 
milk  route  and  typhoid  fever  has  been  found  to  have  been  at  the 
farm  whence  the  milk  was  brought. 

In  some  cases  the  communication  appeared  to  be  through  water 
from  a  well  polluted  by  soakings  from  a  privy  where  dejecta  from 
a  typhoid  patient  had  been  deposited.  But  the  method  of  com- 
munication has  not  been  determined  with  certainty. 

Drinking  water  has  many  times  been  proven  to  be  the  medium 
by  which  t3^hoid  fever  has  been  communicated.  Many  marked  - 
cases  have  been  recorded  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  but  the 
present  object  is  not  to  repeat  what  is  aheady  known  but  to  pre- 
sent the  results  of  a  study  of  the  influence  of  the  water  suppUes  of 
the  State  of  Massachusetts  upon  the  prevalence  of  typhoid  fever. 


TYPHOID  FEVER  AND  WATER  SUPPLIES         133 

The  highest  death-rates  by  typhoid  fever  in  the  state  are  not 
in  the  cities,  but  are  in  the  towns  that  depend  for  water  upon 
wells.  The  five  towns  highest  on  the  Hst,  for  the  past  eighteen 
years,  have  an  average  death-rate  of  12.82  per  year  for  each  10,000 
inhabitants;  while  the  five  cities  having  the  highest  death-rate  by 
typhoid  fever,  in  the  past  twelve  years,  average  7.65  per  10,000, 
and  the  average  for  all  of  the  cities  of  the  state,  in  the  same  time, 
has  been  4.62. 

The  town  which  had  the  highest  death-rate  from  typhoid  fever 
in  the  state  was  Ware.  In  the  fifteen  years  previous  to  1886  the 
average  number  of  deaths  by  this  disease  in  10,000  inhabitants 
was  16.5.  In  1886  this  town  introduced  a  supply  of  water  and  in 
the  years  since,  although  the  water  has  not  yet  come  to  be  gen- 
erally used,  the  number  of  deaths  has  fallen  to  6.9,  or  four-tenths 
as  many  as  previously. 

Improvement  is  not  limited  to  those  communities  where  the 
prevailing  death-rate  was  high,  as  illustrated  by  the  city  of  New- 
buryport,  which  used  well  water  until  1881,  when  water  was 
brought  into  the  city  from  springs.  In  the  nine  years  previous  to 
the  introduction  of  spring  water  the  number  of  deaths  yearly  by 
typhoid  fever  per  10,000  inhabitants  was  4.55.  In  the  seven  years 
since  the  introduction  of  pure  water  the  number  of  deaths  per 
10,000  has  been  only  2.07,  or  less  than  half  as  many  as  previously. 

The  general  decrease  in  deaths  by  typhoid  fever,  resulting  from 
abandoning  wells  and  introducing  a  pubHc  water  supply,  will  be 
presented  later. 

Typhoid  fever  is  properly  regarded  as  a  preventable  disease, 
and  in  considering  the  following  facts  we  must  conclude  that  some 
of  our  communities  have  responsibiUties  that  cannot  be  ignored  in 
preventing  yearly  the  death  of  many  people  scattered  through  all 
classes  of  society. 

That  this  is  to  a  great  extent  a  preventable  disease  is  shown  by 
these  general  facts :  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  average  number  of 
deaths  by  typhoid  fever  in  10,000  inhabitants  in  the  places  which 
are  now  cities  in  this  state  was  7.8;  the  number  now  dying  yearly 
from  this  disease  in  the  same  places  is  4.6  in  10,000  inhabitants. 
In  fact,  the  actual  number  of  deaths  from  this  disease  twenty-five 


134  STATE  SANITATION 

years  ago  in  these  places,  when  their  population  was  only  six- 
tenths  as  much  as  at  present,  was  as  great  as  it  is  now;  and  if 
measures  for  its  prevention  had  not  been  taken,  and  the  death- 
rate  had  continued  as  it  was  twenty-five  years  ago,  we  should  now 
have  1 ,000  deaths  yearly,  when  the  actual  number  in  the  cities  is 
about  600. 

With  the  usual  number  of  600  deaths  in  a  year,  in  all  of  the 
cities  of  the  state  having  a  population  of  one  million  and  one- 
third,  we  find  that  two  of  the  cities  having  together  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  population  have,  in  the  twelve  months  ending  April  i, 
1891,  had  more  than  one-third  as  many  deaths  as  all  usually  have 
in  a  year.  The  city  of  Lowell,  with  a  population  of  78,ooOj  had, 
in  the  twelve  months  mentioned,  150  deaths  from  this  disease, 
and  the  city  of  Lawrence,  with  45,000  inhabitants,  had  78  deaths. 
These  two  cities  had  69  more  deaths  from  this  disease,  in  the 
twelve  months,  than  the  city  of  Boston  with  four  times  the  popu- 
lation. 

If  these  two  cities  had  had  only  as  many  deaths  as  the  average 
of  the  city  population,  the  number  would  have  been  36  in  Lowell 
and  21  in  Lawrence.  There  were  in  Lowell,  in  one  year,  114  more 
deaths  and  in  Lawrence  57  more  deaths  by  this  disease  than  in  the 
usual  average  of  the  same  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  cities  of 
the  state. 

Deaths  in  Boston,  Lowell  and  Lawrence 

General  statements  have  been  made  of  the  relative  numbers  of 
deaths  by  t3rphoid  fever  in  Boston,  Lowell  and  Lawrence  in  the 
twelve  months,  including  the  epidemic  in  the  two  latter  cities. 
Additional  information  may  be  obtained  by  considering  the 
deaths  in  these  cities  from  this  disease  month  by  month  in  the 
past  two  years. 

The  actual  numbers  of  deaths  from  t3^hoid  fever  in  each  of 
these  cities  in  each  month  of  the  past  two  years  are  given  in  the 
figures  below,  together  with  the  population  in  1890  and  the 
number  of  deaths  in  100,000  inhabitants. 

Turning  to  the  diagram  of  the  death-rates  in  Lawrence,  we  find 
that  in  December,  1889,  and  January  and  February,  1890,  fol- 


TYPHOID  FEVER  AND  WATER  SUPPLIES 


135 


lowing  a  month  after  the  high  death-rates  of  Lowell  for  that  year, 
the  death-rates  of  Lawrence  from  typhoid  fever  were  higher  than 
those  of  Lowell,  and  eight  times  as  high  as  in  Boston  in  the  same 


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Fig.  II.    Actual  Number  of  Deaths  from  Typhoid  Fever  in  Each  Month 
IN  Boston,  Lowell  and  Lawrence 


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Fig.  12.    Number  of  Deaths  from  Typhoid  Fever  in  100,000  Inhabitants  for 
Each  Month  in  Boston,  Lowell  and  Lawrence 


months.  During  the  next  six  months,  through  the  spring  and 
summer,  the  death-rate  in  Lawrence  from  typhoid  fever  averaged 
about  twice  that  of  Boston,  and  when  Boston  reached  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  fall,  Lawrence  had  about  the  same  rates;  but  then 


136  STATE  SANITATION 

followed  the  great  increase  in  death-rates  in  Lawrence,  being 
about  four  times  that  of  Boston  in  November,  ten  times  that  in 
December,  and  (owing  to  the  decreasing  rates  in  Boston  as  usual 
at  that  season  of  the  year)  amounting  to  about  twenty  times  that 
of  Boston  in  January  and  February. 

These  high  death-rates  from  typhoid  fever  in  Lawrence  occur  at 
a  time  when  there  is  very  Httle  of  this  disease  in  other  cities  except 
Lowell,  and  they  follow  this  year,  as  in  the  previous  year,  about  a 
month  later  than  the  high  death-rates  of  Lowell. 

These  conditions  all  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  excess  of 
typhoid  fever  continually  prevailing  in  Lawrence  follows  from 
and  is  due  to  the  existence  of  the  disease  in  Lowell,  and  that 
the  prevailing  excess  in  Lowell  is  due  to  the  existence  of  the 
disease  in  the  towns  up  the  river  which  discharge  sewage  into 
the  river. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  whether  typhoid  fever  germs 
which  grow  in  the  human  body  at  blood  heat  will  survive  in  water 
at  a  temperature  a  little  above  freezing  long  enough  to  pass  from 
Lowell  sewers  to  the  service-pipes  of  the  city  of  Lawrence.  The 
temperature  of  the  river  water  in  November,  1890,  was  from  45° 
to  35°  F.;  the  distance  from  the  sewers  in  Lowell  to  the  intake  of 
the  Lawrence  water  works  is  nine  miles,  and  the  time  for  the 
water  to  pass  from  the  sewers  to  the  intake  was  at  that  time  less 
than  eight  hours.  Entering  the  reservoir  the  same  day,  the  water 
would  reach  the  outlet  and  enter  the  service-pipes  within  ten 
days,  —  most  of  it  within  a  week.  It  would  then  be  distributed 
over  the  city,  in  the  portions  near  the  reservoir,  in  about  one  week 
from  leaving  the  sewers  of  Lowell,  and  in  more  remote  parts  of  the 
city  in  about  two  weeks. 

To  prove  whether  typhoid  fever  germs  would  survive  in  the 
Merrimack  River  water,  when  at  the  low  temperature  of  the 
month  of  November,  long  enough  to  pass  from  the  Lowell  sewers 
to  the  service-pipes  in  Lawrence,  a  series  of  experiments  was  made 
by  the  Board  by  inoculating  water  from  the  service-pipes  with 
typhoid  fever  germs,  and  keeping  the  water  in  a  bottle  surrounded 
by  ice,  at  as  near  freezing  as  practicable,  for  a  month,  and  each 
day  taking  out  one  cubic  centimeter  and  determining  the  number 


TYPHOID  FEVER  AND  WATER  SUPPLIES         137 

of  typhoid  germs.    The  number  continually  decreased,  but  some 
survived  twenty-four  days. 

On  the  first  day  there  were 6,120  germs 

"     "    fifth  day  there  were 3, 100      " 

"     "    tenth  day  there  were 490      " 

"      "    fifteenth  day  there  were 100      " 

"      "    twentieth  day  there  were 17      " 

"     "    twenty-fifth  day  there  were o      ** 

This  experiment  indicates  that  typhoid  fever  germs  from  the 
sewers  of  Lowell  may  live  in  winter  to  enter  the  Lawrence  reser- 
voir in  large  numbers;  that  the  numbers  will  decrease  in  the 
reservoir;  but  still  a  considerable  fraction  will  live  to  enter  the 
service-pipes,  and  that  this  fraction  will  decrease  as  the  water 
proceeds  in  the  pipes  across  the  city. 

This  latter  reduction  is  the  probable  explanation  of  the  fact 
brought  out  by  plotting  the  cases  for  three  months  in  the  fall  of 
1890,  at  their  several  locations  upon  a  map  of  the  city,  that  much 
the  larger  number  of  cases  were  in  portions  of  the  city  near  the 
reservoir;  but  that  some  germs  survived  the  passage  through 
the  pipes  was  proven  by  their  being  found  in  water  drawn  from 
the  service-pipes  in  December,  1890,  at  the  Experiment  Station, 
which  is  across  the  city  from  the  reservoir,  distant  about  two  and 
a  half  miles. 

We  have  found  this  relation  existing  between  tj^hoid  fever  and 
water  supply,  viz. :  that  in  general,  in  the  cities  of  the  state,  the 
death-rate  by  typhoid  fever  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  in- 
troduction of  a  pure  public  water  supply;  that  in  the  one  city 
where  there  has  not  been  such  a  reduction,  a  portion  of  the  people 
use,  for  drinking,  water  from  canals  or  from  wells  subjected  to 
serious  pollution  by  sewage;  and  that  the  deaths  from  this  disease 
are  much  more  frequent  among  that  portion  of  the  community 
than  among  others. 

The  only  two  remaining  cities  which  have  not  decreased  death- 
rates  by  typhoid  fever  after  the  introduction  of  public  water  sup- 
plies receive  their  supplies  from  a  river  polluted  by  sewage;  and 
the  seasons  in  which  this  disease  prevails  in  these  cities  are  later 
than  those  of  other  cities,  and  in  the  lower  city  on  the  river  later 


138  STATE  SANITATION 

than  in  the  upper  city,  at  a  season  when  other  cities  are  nearly  free 
from  the  disease  and  at  the  time  when  it  would  follow  if  produced 
by  the  sewage  from  the  upper  city;  further,  that  when  the  water 
of  the  river  which  passed  the  upper  city  and  received  its  sewage 
during  the  greatest  prevalence  of  the  disease  there  had  reached 
the  service-pipes  of  the  lower  city,  and  there  was  the  greatest 
prevalence  of  the  disease  in  the  lower  city,  typhoid  fever  germs 
were  found  in  water  from  these  service-pipes. 


XV 

A   CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  DRINKING-WATERS  OF 
THE   STATE 

[This  paper,  published  without  signature,  contained  an  account  of  the  normal 
chlorine  map  of  the  state.  The  publication  of  this  map  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  water  analysis.  Part  I,  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  677. 
—  G.  C.W.] 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  public  health,  the  natural  classifi- 
cation of  waters  is  into  those  which  have  at  no  time  been  con- 
taminated by  the  waste  products  of  human  life,  and  those  which 
have  been  thus  contaminated.  Waters  of  the  first  class  we  have 
called  normal;  in  the  latter  class,  we  attempt  to  express  the 
amount  of  polluting  matter  of  the  nature  of  sewage  which  the 
water  has  received,  by  giving  its  variation  from  the  normal 
chlorine  contents  of  the  region. 

The  subject  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  the 
interpretation  of  analyses. '^  It  was  there  shown  that  we  have  in 
the  chlorine  contents  of  the  water  the  evidence  that  we  need  to 
determine  whether  or  not  a  body  of  water  has  received  house 
drainage,  either  directly,  as  when  the  sewage  of  a  town  flows  into 
a  stream,  or  indirectly,  as  when  the  drainage  from  houses  or 
cesspools  reaches  the  water  courses  after  filtration  through  the 
ground. 

In  the  accompanying  map  of  normal  chlorine  of  Massachusetts, 
the  points  of  Hke  normal  chlorine  have  been  connected  by  lines 
which  we  will  call  isochlors.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these  isochlors, 
which  represent  a  difference  of  0.05  part  of  chlorine  in  100,000  of 
water,  are,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  close  together,  ap- 
proximately parallel,  and  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  coast 
hne.  As  we  recede  from  the  coast  westward,  the  isochlors  are 
wider  apart  and  their  parallelism  is  less  marked. 

^  This  refers  to  the  Special  Report. 
139 


I40  STATE  SANITATION 

In  the  tabulations  of  the  waters  of  the  state  according  to 
their  chlorine  contents,  this  map  has  been  used  as  the  basis; 
that  is  to  say,  when  the  average  chlorine  contents  of  a  water 
agree  with  the  isochlors  on  the  map,  the  water  is  considered 
normal;  when  the  amount  of  chlorine  is  in  excess  of  the  normal, 
the  amount  of  this  excess  expresses  the  extent  to  which  the  water 
is  believed  to  have  been  polluted.  This  use  of  the  map  of  normal 
chlorine  we  find  justified  in  most  of  the  cases  where  we  have  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  drainage  area;  in  other  words,  we  find 
the  excess  of  chlorine  in  the  water  to  be  in  proportion  to  the 
population  on  the  drainage  area. 

There  are  no  data  in  this  country  sufficiently  complete  from 
which  we  can  determine  the  amount  of  chlorine  contributed  to 
sewage  by  each  inhabitant  per  day.  Calculations  based  on  the 
volume  of  sewage  per  inhabitant  in  London,  and  determinations 
of  the  amount  of  chlorine  in  the  sewage  and  in  the  water  supply, 
indicate  that  the  amount  of  chlorine  per  person  per  day  is  0.045 
pound.  The  average  daily  flow  of  the  Sudbury  River  per  square 
mile  of  drainage  area  for  the  past  eleven  years  is  8,500,000 
pounds  of  water  per  day.  Assuming  the  data  derived  from  Lon- 
don sewage  to  be  generally  appHcable,  we  find  that  it  requires 
nineteen  persons  per  square  mile  to  increase  the  chlorine  in  the 
water  flowing  from  a  drainage  area  of  the  size  of  the  Sudbury 
River  o.oi  of  a  part  per  100,000.  Another  way  of  arriving  at  the 
population  required  to  produce  this  result  is  to  divide  the  popu- 
lation per  square  mile  of  watersheds  in  Massachusetts  by  the 
corresponding  excess  of  chlorine  in  the  water.  In  this  way  we 
find,  from  an  average  of  observations  of  fifteen  streams  and  reser- 
voirs, that  it  requires  twenty-one  persons  per  square  mile  to 
increase  the  chlorine  o.oi.  Observations  of  nine  other  streams, 
where  a  portion  of  the  chlorine  is  probably  due  to  manufacturing 
wastes,  give  but  thirteen  inhabitants  per  o.oi  increase  of  chlorine. 
There  are  a  few  streams  where  the  amount  of  chlorine  furnished 
by  manufacturing  is  still  greater,  so  that  each  o.oi  of  chlorine 
corresponds  to  a  still  smaller  population,  the  minimum  number 
found  being  2.8  persons  per  square  mile. 


DRINKING-WATERS  OF  THE  STATE  141 

All  the  foregoing  results  are  based  upon  averages  for  a  year  or 
more.  In  the  summer,  when  the  flow  is  small,  the  population 
corresponding  to  0.0 1  excess  of  chlorine  is  much  smaller,  the  aver- 
age of  several  observations  upon  streams  being  seven  persons  per 
square  mile. 

The  average  results  obtained  from  analyses  of  ponds  should  be 
somewhat  larger  than  those  of  streams;  but  the  individual  re- 
sults vary  so  much  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  consider  a  refinement 
of  this  kind.  We  may  say,  in  a  general  way,  that  four  families  or 
twenty  persons  per  square  mile  will  add,  on  an  average,  o.oi  of  a 
part  per  100,000  of  chlorine  to  the  water  flowing  from  this  area, 
and  that  a  much  smaller  population  will  have  the  same  efifect 
during  seasons  of  low  flow. 

While  we  feel  confident  in  the  general  correctness  of  the 
appKcation  of  the  map  for  the  determination  of  the  degree  to 
which  the  waters  have  been  polluted,  it  is  important  that  the 
limitations  of  its  use  be  clearly  understood.  Some  of  these  limi- 
tations are:  — 

1 .  Those  waters  have  been  called  normal,  and  have  been  used 
in  establishing  the  isochlors,  which  drain  areas  believed  to  be 
nearly  or  quite  free  from  population.  Until  a  careful  survey  of 
the  state  be  made,  with  the  express  object  in  view  of  determining 
the  relation  of  population  to  the  surface  and  ground  waters,  we 
cannot  be  sure  in  all  cases  that  we  actually  have  normal  water. 
The  normals  as  now  given  represent  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  of  this  relation. 

2.  Since  the  source  of  the  chlorine  in  the  normal  waters  of  the 
state  is  mainly  the  salt  of  the  sea  water,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
direction  and  force  of  the  wind  and  the  amount  and  distribution 
of  the  rainfall  are  the  important  factors  governing  the  amount  of 
chlorine  in  these  waters.  The  chlorine  contents  of  the  waters 
through  which  the  isochlors  are  drawn  represent,  in  most  cases, 
the  average  of  monthly  determinations  from  June,  1887,  to  May, 
1889.  It  may  be  that  another  period  of  Hke  duration,  with  dif- 
ferent meteorological  conditions,  would  give  isochlors  which 
would  vary  in  position  somewhat  from  those  on  the  map. 


142  STATE  SANITATION 

3.  It  has  been  already  clearly  pointed  out  that  the  single  de- 
terminations of  the  chlorine  from  which  the  normal  averages 
are  made  vary  greatly,  often  fifty  or  one  hundred  per  cent,  and 
in  some  cases  even  more.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  a  single  de- 
termination of  chlorine  may  be  misleading,  when  compared  with 
the  average  normal  chlorine. 

4.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  where  the  isochlors  are  near 
together,  it  is  evident  that  slight  variations  from  the  normal  have 
less  significance  than  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  where  the 
same  normal  covers  a  larger  area. 

5.  In  any  case  too  much  importance  must  not  be  attached  to 
slight  variations  from  the  normal,  as  shown  on  the  map,  say  to  the 
extent  of  0.05  part  in  100,000.  The  necessities  involved  in  draw- 
ing the  isochlors  with  our  present  knowledge  will  often  cause  a 
variation,  plus  or  minus,  of  this  amount,  in  waters  believed  to  be 
normal.  This  is  particularly  the  case  near  the  sea,  where  a  general 
parallelism  with  the  coast  has  been  observed  in  drawing  the 
isochlors.  These  irregularities  wiU,  it  is  believed,  largely  dis- 
appear when  further  surveys  and  analyses  give  us  more  complete 
knowledge  of  the  waters  of  the  state.  Our  examinations  have 
hitherto  been  mainly  confined  to  public  water  supplies,  and 
the  waters  of  some  of  the  larger  rivers.  To  make  the  map  of 
normal  chlorine  complete  and  accurate,  the  smaller  streams 
in  uninhabited  regions  should  be  examined  regularly  for  some 
years. 

In  a  few  cases  which  will  call  for  detailed  mention  hereafter,  we 
have  a  considerable  excess  of  chlorine  above  the  normal,  which  we 
are  unable  to  account  for  by  the  population  on  the  drainage  area. 
These  cases  are  to  be  made  the  subject  of  future  examination.  It 
may  be  discovered  that  certain  waters  contain  chlorine  of  other 
origin  than  sewage,  or  from  the  sea;  as,  for  instance,  from  salt 
contained  in  certain  geological  formations,  or  from  factories  in 
which  salt  or  other  chlorides  are  largely  used. 

6.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  excess  of  chlorine  in  a  water 
above  the  normal  does  not  necessarily  imply  present  pollution. 
The  organic  matter  and  ammonia  which  sewage  has  brought  into 
a  water  may  have  long  since  disappeared  by  oxidation  or  absorp- 


DRINKING-WATERS  OF  THE  STATE  143 

tion  by  plants,  but  the  salt,  which  is  not  subject  to  change, 
remains.  It  is  thus  possible  to  have  a  pure  water,  organically 
speaking,  which  shows  by  its  chlorine  contents  that  it  was  once 
badly  polluted  by  sewage.  This  is  particularly  true  of  ground 
waters,  since  the  oxidizing  power  of  porous  earth  on  organic 
matter  is  very  great. 


XVI 

THE  EFFECT  OF  STORAGE  UPON  THE  TASTE 
AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS 

By  Frederic  P.  Stearns  and  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown 

[[Although  the  study  of  algae  in  Massachusetts  waters  dated  back  to  Dr.  Farlow 
and  Professor  Nichols,  it  was  this  analytical  study  based  upon  the  carefully  col- 
lected data  which  put  the  subject  on  its  present  basis.  It  shows  the  advantage  of 
quantitative  study  as  opposed  to  mere  qualitative  investigations.  Part  1,  Report  on 
Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  i8go,  p.  740.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

This  title  is  not  intended  to  refer  to  the  usual  taste  and  odor  of 
waters,  but  rather  to  those  which  at  times  make  water  very  dis- 
agreeable. These  troubles  have  in  nearly  all  cases  been  traced  to 
the  growth  of  organisms  in  the  water. 

The  existence  of  these  troubles  can  best  be  determined  from  the 
practical  experience  of  those  using  the  water;  but  they  are  also 
indicated  by  the  odors  and  the  amount  of  suspended  organic 
nitrogen  as  determined  by  the  chemist,  and  by  the  abundance  of 
microscopic  growth  as  determined  by  the  biologist. 

Although  streams  are  sometimes  subject  to  certain  disadvan- 
tages as  sources  of  water  supply,  such  as  the  pollution  due  to 
domestic  and  manufacturing  wastes,  the  turbidity  occasioned  by 
rains,  or  the  peaty  character  of  the  water  caused  by  drainage 
from  swamps,  it  is  well  known  that  they  are  not  affected  by  the 
peculiar  bad  tastes  and  odors  to  which  stored  waters  are  subject. 
Practically  the  same  conclusion  is  reached  in  the  report  of  the 
biologist,  who  finds  much  smaller  numbers  of  organisms  in  streams 
than  in  ponds  and  reservoirs. 

These  facts  are  of  limited  practical  value,  because  water  sup- 
plies cannot,  in  most  cases,  be  obtained  from  streams  without 
storage;  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  indicate  under  what  con- 
ditions of  storage  and  with  what  character  of  water,  troubles  are 
least  likely  to  occur;  that  is  to  say,  are  they  less  likely  to  occur  in 
natural  ponds  or  in  artificial  storage  reservoirs,  in  deep  basins  or 

144 


TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS         145 

in  shallow  ones,  in  unpolluted  or  in  polluted  waters,  in  waters  of 
high  or  of  low  color,  or  in  those  which  are  stored  a  long  or  a  short 
time  ?  In  view  of  the  necessarily  imperfect  record  of  the  occur- 
rence of  bad  tastes  and  odors,  and  the  many  causes  which  affect 
the  results,  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  observations  at  a  much 
larger  number  of  places  than  this  state  can  furnish;  but  the  ob- 
servations which  have  been  made  throw  considerable  Hght  upon 
the  subject. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  streams  are  not  subject  to 
these  bad  tastes  and  odors.  The  same  is  true  of  nearly  all  of  the 
small  reservoirs  which  contain  but  a  few  days'  supply.  These  are 
frequently  built  upon  mountain  streams,  and  their  most  impor- 
tant office  is  to  act  as  settling  basins  to  catch  the  gravel,  sand  and 
debris  brought  down  by  the  stream.  The  effect  of  reservoirs  of 
this  kind  is  wholly  beneficial.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  provide  storage  equal  to  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  in  a  month  or  more,  and  only  such  reservoirs  as 
contain  this  amount  of  storage  will  be  further  considered. 

Observations  have  been  made  on  seventy-one  ponds  and 
reservoirs  of  this  class,  nearly  all  of  which  are  sources  of  water 
supply.  Of  these,  forty-five,  or  sixty-three  per  cent,  have  at  some 
time  given  trouble  from  bad  tastes  and  odors;  but  in  three  in- 
stances the  troubles  have  occurred  in  reservoirs  which  have  only 
recently  been  filled,  and  may  not  recur  when  the  reservoirs  are 
older.  In  sixteen  other  cases  the  trouble  has  not  been  serious,  or 
has  occurred  only  at  long  intervals,  leaving  twenty-six,  or  thirty- 
seven  per  cent,  of  the  ponds  and  older  reservoirs  which  have  given 
much  trouble.  In  making  a  distinction  between  supplies  which 
have  given  much  and  Httle  trouble,  those  in  which  the  aggregate 
duration  of  the  bad  tastes  and  odors  has  not  exceeded  one  month 
in  five  years  are  included  in  the  latter  class. 

In  making  a  further  classification  it  has  been  assumed  that  all 
natural  ponds  should  be  classed  as  ponds,  even  though  they  were 
made  artificial  in  part  by  being  raised;  while  all  artificial  reser- 
voirs are  classed  as  reservoirs,  even  though  they  may  have 
existed  as  mill  ponds  for  a  very  long  time.  Ponds  and  reservoirs 
are  assumed  to  be  polluted  when  the  population  upon  the  drain- 


146  STATE  SANITATION 

age  area  is  more  than  three  hundred  to  the  square  mile,  and  the 
waste  products  from  this  population  enter  the  pond  or  reservoir 
either  directly  or  by  filtration  through  the  ground.  In  the  latter 
case  the  sewage  may  be  wholly  purified  by  filtration,  yet  the 
effluent  will  contain  nitrates  which  will  promote  the  growth  of 
organisms,  and  may  thereby  cause  bad  tastes  and  odors.  Where 
the  average  depth  is  less  than  nine  feet,  the  pond  or  reservoir  is 
called  shallow;  and  in  two  instances  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
very  shallow  flowage,  ponds  having  an  average  depth  of  ten  feet 
are  classed  as  shallow.  Water  having  a  color  of  0.30  or  more  is 
assumed  to  have  a  high  color. 

Using  the  above  arbitrary  divisions,  a  classification  of  the 
ponds  and  reservoirs,  with  reference  to  the  occurrence  or  non- 
occurrence of  troubles,  has  been  made.  The  three  new  reservoirs 
above  referred  to  have  been  omitted;  also  Farm  Pond  and 
Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir  (both  of  which  have  once  been  seriously 
affected),  for  the  reason  that  the  former  receives  most  of  its  water 
from  the  storage  reservoirs  on  Sudbury  River,  and  the  latter  was 
affected  when  it  received  water  from  Lake  Cochituate  only.  The 
results  are  presented  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

The  table  shows  that,  out  of  a  total  of  thirty-eight  ponds,  eight, 
or  twenty-one  per  cent,  have  given  much  trouble  from  bad  tastes 
and  odors ;  while  of  the  twenty-eight  reservoirs,  sixteen,  or  fifty- 
seven  per  cent,  are  similarly  affected. 

In  comparing  the  polluted  and  unpolluted  ponds,  the  effect  of 
pollution  is  very  obvious.  All  of  the  polluted  ponds  are  deep; 
but,  notwithstanding  this  advantage,  all  are  affected  to  some 
extent,  and  half  of  them  give  much  trouble.  Of  the  twenty-five 
deep  unpolluted  ponds,  only  one  has  given  much  trouble,  six  have 
given  a  Httle  trouble,  and  eighteen  no  trouble  whatever.  This 
indicates  that  there  is  Httle  danger  of  having  serious  trouble  from 
bad  tastes  and  odors,  if  a  water  supply  can  be  taken  from  a  deep 
pond  which  is  unpolluted.  The  shallow  unpolluted  ponds  appear 
to  be  subject  to  bad  tastes  and  odors,  as  three  out  of  a  total  of 
five  give  much  trouble,  and  one  a  Httle  trouble. 

Only  two  of  the  reservoirs  are  polluted,  but  these  give  the  same 
indication  as  the  eight  polluted  ponds,  one  giving  much  trouble 


TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS 


147 


and  the  other  a  Httle.  Of  the  twenty-six  unpolluted  reservoirs, 
one-half  are  shallow.  Of  these,  eleven  give  much  trouble  and  two 
give  none.  In  nearly  all  of  these  cases  in  which  trouble  has  oc- 
curred, the  reservoirs  have  been  constructed  on  new  sites,  and 
the  soil  and  vegetable  matter  have  not  been  removed  from  their 
bottoms  and  sides.    In  one  of  the  cases  where  there  is  no  trouble 

Table  22 

A  Classification  of  Ponds  and  Reservoirs  with  Reference  to 
Troubles  from  Bad  Tastes  and  Odors 


Ponds 

Reservoirs 

Condition 

Much 
Trouble 

Little 
Trouble 

No 
Trouble 

Much 
Trouble 

Little 
Trouble 

No 
Trouble 

Polluted 
Shallow  and  high  color 

I 

3 

4 

I 

I 

Shallow  and  low  color 

Deep  and  high  color 

Deep  and  low  color 

Total  polluted 

4 

3 

I 

4 

I 
2 

4 

I 

2 
16 

I 

10 
I 
I 
3 

I 

2 
2 

Unpolluted 
Shallow  and  high  color 

Shallow  and  low  color 

Deep  and  high  color 

4 
I 

Deep  and  low  color 

Total  unpolluted 

4 

7 

19 

15 

4 

7 

Total  polluted  and  unpolluted 

8 

II 

19 

16 

5 

7 

the  reservoir  was  used  to  furnish  power  for  a  mill  before  being 
used  as  a  source  of  domestic  water  supply.  The  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  this  comparison  is,  that  a  shallow  reservoir  large 
enough  to  hold  a  supply  for  a  month  or  more  is  quite  sure  to  give 
trouble  if  the  soil  and  vegetable  matter  are  not  removed  from  it 
before  filHng.  The  experience  at  the  present  time  is  too  limited  to 
enable  us  to  predict  what  proportion  of  cleaned  or  old  shallow 
reservoirs  are  likely  to  give  trouble. 


148  STATE  SANITATION 

Of  the  thirteen  deep,  unpolluted  reservoirs,  four  give  much 
trouble,  four  a  little,  and  five  none.  It  is  noticeable  that,  of  the 
five  which  give  no  trouble,  four  have  had  the  soil  and  vegetable 
matter  removed  from  them,  and  one  was  previously  a  storage 
reservoir  for  mill  purposes;  while,  of  the  eight  which  have  given 
more  or  less  trouble,  none  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  only 
one  was  previously  used  for  mill  purposes;  and  even  this  has 
since  been  raised.  Two  of  the  older  reservoirs,  which  are  classed 
as  giving  Uttle  trouble,  have  not  given  any  trouble  in  recent 
years. 

Among  the  four  deep  reservoirs  classed  as  giving  much  trouble 
is  the  Ludlow  Reservoir,  at  Springfield,  which  has  furnished  bad 
water  in  summer  for  sixteen  years.  The  other  three  reservoirs  of 
this  class  have  not  given  nearly  as  much  trouble. 

In  several  instances  the  reservoirs  which  have  given  trouble  are 
flowed  over  swamps  and  meadows. 

Selecting  from  the  table  the  high  and  low  colored  waters,  we 
find  that  there  are  twenty-four  of  the  former  and  forty-two  of  the 
latter.  Of  those  with  a  high  color,  seventy-five  per  cent  have 
given  trouble;  while  of  those  with  a  low  color  but  fifty- two 
per  cent  are  affected.  This  unfavorable  showing  for  the  high 
colored  waters  appears  to  be  due  to  other  considerations  than  the 
color;  that  is  to  say,  the  high  colors  predominate  in  shallow 
reservoirs,  while  the  low  colors  are  found  under  the  more  favor- 
able conditions  of  deep  ponds.  A  study  of  the  table  in  detail 
indicates  that  the  effect  of  color,  if  any,  is  very  much  less  than 
that  of  pollution  and  the  conditions  of  storage. 

The  foregoing  classification  has  been  based  for  the  most  part 
upon  the  information  obtained  from  ofi&cial  reports  and  other  out- 
side sources,  and  it  may  be  instructive  to  compare  the  chemical 
characteristics  of  these  waters,  adhering  to  the  same  classification. 
Such  comparisons  are  presented  in  the  following  tables :  — 


TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS 


149 


Table  23 

Analyses  of  Ponds  and  Reservoirs 

Polluted  Ponds ' 
[Parts  per  100,000] 


Location 

Color 

Ammonia 

Nitrogen 
as 

Total 
Ni- 
trogen 

Ex- 

Condition 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

cess  of 
Chlo- 

Total 

Sus- 
pended 

rine 

Deep,  and  high  f 
color, —  much  \ 
trouble             [ 

Deep,  and  low  f 
color, —  much  \ 
trouble              [ 

Wobum,  Horn  Pond  2  . . . 

Boston,  Jamaica  Pond.  .  . 
Boston,  Mystic  Lake  2 . . . 
Natick,  Dug  Pond 

Average  of  four 

0-34 

0.03 
0.23 
o.is 

.ors2 

.01 S  7 
•023s 
.ooso 

.0389 

.0398 
.0264 
.0218 

.0058 

.0299 
.00s  2 
.0039 

.0452 

.0160 
.0496 
.0238 

.001  s 

.0004 
.0015 
.0004 

•  I2S7 

.1072 
.1161 
.0658 

2.61 

0.33 
I-5S 
0.44 

0.19 

.0148 

•0317 

.0112 

.0336 

.0009 

.1037 

1.23 

Deep,  and  low 
color, —  little  < 
trouble 

Boston,  Lake  Cochituate. 
Cambridge,  Fresh  Pond . . 
Haverhill.Lake  Saltonstall 
Marlboro,  Lake  Williams 

0.2s 

O.Il 

0.0s 
0.06 

.0026 
.0134 
.0015 
.0006 

.0207 
.0196 
.0145 
.0196 

.0039 
•0035 

.0043 

.0148 
.0281 
.0050 
■OOS3 

.0003 
.0007 
.0003 
.0001 

.0520 
•073s 
.0304 
.0400 

.20 
■94 
•30 

.25 

0.12 

.0045 

.0186 

.0039 

•0133 

.0004 

.0492 

Average  of  8  polluted 

O.IS 

.0097 

.0252 

.0081 

•023s 

.0007 

.0764 

•83 

The  word  polluted  as  used  here  has  the  definition  given  on  page  145. 

A  large  part  of  the  excess  of  chlorine  is  due  to  the  drainage  from  tanneries. 


Unpolluted  Ponds 


Shallow,  and 
low  color,  —  < 

Maiden,  Spot  Pond 

Nantucket,  Wannacomet 
Pond 

0.24 

0.07 
0.03 

.0007 

.0002 
.0007 

.0216 

.0163 
.0136 

.0029 

.0044 

.0034 
.0059 

.0001 
.0002 

.0419 

.0307 
.0289 

.06 

much  trouble 

Spencer,  Shaw  Pond 

.01 

O.II 

.0005 

.0172 

.0029 

.0046 

.0001 

•0338 

Shallow,  and     f 
low  color,  —  \ 
Uttle  trouble    [ 

Haverhill,  Lake  Pentucket 

0.02 

.0007 

.0164 

.0040 

.0317 

.09 

ShaUow,  and     | 
high  color,  —  I 
no  trouble       [ 

Randolph,  Great  Pond. . . 

0.76 

.0008 

•02S3 

.0026 

.0043 

.0001 

.0479 

.10 

Deep,  and  low  f 

Holyoke,  Ashley  and 

0.06 

.0023 

.0184 

.0043 

.0043 

.0001 

■0385 

trouble             \ 

I50 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  24 

Analyses  of  Ponds  and  Reservoirs  —  Continued 

Unpolluted  Ponds  —  CondiMed 
[Parts  per  100,000] 


Ammonia 

Nitrogen 

Location 

Color 

Total 
Ni- 
trogen 

Ex- 

Condition 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

cess  of 
Chlo- 

Total 

Sus- 
pended 

rine 

Deep,  and  high 
color,  —  little- 
trouble 

Danvers,  Middleton  Pond 
Westboro,  Chauncy  Pond 

0.62 
0.56 

.0008 
.0005 

.0207 
.0320 

•0035 
.0103 

.0049 
.0025 

.0001 
.0001 

.0413 
.0600 

.01 
.10 

0-S9 

.0006 

.0263 

.0069 

.0037 

.0001 

.0506 

•OS 

Concord,  Sandy  Pond  . . . 

0.03 

.0001 

.0129 

.0041 

.0001 

.0256 

.00 

Deep,  and  low 

Hingham,  Accord  Pond   . 

0.23 

.0003 

.0144 

.0017 

.0043 

.0001 

.0292 

•OS 

color,  —  little- 

Plymouth,     Great     and 

trouble 

Little  South  ponds 

0.00 

.0003 

.0130 

.0013 

.0000 

.0230 

.00 

l 

Wakefield,  Crystal  Lake  . 

0.14 

.0008 

.0165 

.0017 

.0079 

.0001 

•036s 

.14 

O.IO 

.0004 

.0142 

.0017 

.0044 

.0001 

.0286 

.05 

Deep,  and  high 

Lakeville,  Assawompsett 

Pond   

0.38 
0.91 

.0003 
.0010 

.0209 
.0224 

.0023 

.0371 

.00 

trouble 

Weymouth,  Great  Pond. . 

.0037 

.041  s 

.07 

0.64 

.0006 

.0216 

.0030 

•0393 

/ 

Abington,  Big  Sandy  Pond 

o.is 

.0008 

.0160 

.0063 

.0001 

•033s 

■05 

Fall  River,  Watuppa  Lake 

0.19 

.0005 

,0162 

.0020 

■OOS5 

.0001 

.0335 

.02 

Gardner,  Crystal  Lake . . . 

0.02 

.0013 

.0111 

.0050 

.0001 

•024s 

.n 

Haverhill,  Crystal  Lake . . 

0.13 

.0009 

.0166 

.0030 

.0310 

.00 

Haverhill,  Kenoza  Lake. . 

0.02 

.0006 

.0142 

.0014 

.0045 

.0001 

.0291 

.04 

Hudson,  Gates  Pond  .... 

0.0s 

.0014 

•otss 

.0029 

.0056 

.000 1 

■0337 

.02 

Lake  Village,  Lake  Winni- 

.0092 
.0081 

.0038 

Montague,  Lake  Pleasant 

O.OI 

.0021 

.0013 

.0064 

.0000 

.0220 

.02 

Deep,  and  low 

New  Bedford,  Little  Quit- 

trouble 

Norwood,  Buckmaster 

Pond 

.0061 

.0002 

.0482 

.04 

Peabody,  Spring  Pond .  .  . 

0.00 

.0001 

.0111 

.0000 

.0184 

.00 

Peabody,  Brown's  Pond  . 

0.17 

.0001 

.0169 

.0013 

.0293 

.00 

Plymouth,  Lout  Pond  . . . 

0.27 

.0002 

.0156 

.0029 

.0288 

.00 

Salem,  Wenham  Lake  . . . 

0.0s 

.0018 

.0143 

.0028 

.0047 

.0001 

.0311 

.09 

Sherborn,  Waushakum 

Pond 

.06 

Webster,  Lake  Chaubuna- 

0.06 

.0002 

.0129 

.0043 

.0000 

.0258 

^ 

O.IO 

.0011 

.0147 

.0021 

.0043 

.0001 

.0299 

.03 

Average    of   30   unpol- 

luted ponds 

0.19 

.0009 

.0167 

.0030 

.0042 

.0001 

.0331 

.04 

TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS         151 


Table  25 

Analyses  of  Ponds  and  Reservoirs  —  Continued 

Polluted  Reservoirs 
[Parts  per  100,000] 


Location 

Color 

Ammonia 

Nitrogen 
as 

Total 

Ni- 
trogen 

Ex- 

Condition 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

cess  of 
Chlo- 

Total 

Sus- 
pended 

rine 

Shallow,  and      | 
high  color,  —  < 

Arlington,  Storage  Reser- 

0-73 

0.87 

.0024 
.oo4g 

•0475 
.0285 

.0165 
.0044 

.0246 
.0218 

.0002 
.0003 

.1118 
.0750 

.36 
.19 

much  trouble   [ 

Deep,  and          f 
high  color,  —  -j 
little  trouble    [ 

Boston,  Reservoir  3  1 ... . 
Average  of   2   polluted 

0.80 

.0036 

.0380 

.0104 

.0232 

.0002 

•0934 

.27 

1  Has  not  given  trouble  during  the  time  covered  by  these  examinations. 
Unpolluted  Reservoirs 


Shallow,  and 
high  color,  — 
much  trouble 


Athol,  Phillipston  Reser- 
voir   


Brockton,  Salisbury  Brook 
Reservoir 

Easthampton,      Williston 
Pond 

Hingham,     Fulling     Mill 
Pond 

Leominster,  Haynes  Res- 
ervoir   

New    Bedford,    Acushnet 
Reservoir ' 

Northborough,  Storage 
Reservoir 

Wayland,  Storage  Reser- 
voir   

Westborough,     Sandra 
Pond  2 

West  Springfield,  Storage 
Reservoir 


Average . 


0.93 
0.7s 
0.27 
0.36 
0-39 
1.36 
0.8s 
0.83 
0-45 
0.31 


0.6s 


.0021 
.0028 
.0023 
.0015 
.0013 
.0020 
.0026 
.0009 


.0020 


.0221 
.0411 
.0170 
.0282 
.0409 
.0248 
.0230 
.0298 
.0244 
•0133 


.0265 


.0107 

.0000 

.0488 

.0163 

.0058 

.0001 

.0827 

.0034 

.0140 

.0003 

•04S4 

•0I3I 

.0068 

.0002 

.0612 

•0133 

.0067 

.0001 

.0816 

.0018 

.oiso 

.0001 

■OS79 

.0081 

.0001 

.0472 

.0040 

.0108 

.0001 

•0633 

.0079 

.ooox 

.0504 

.0057 

.ooor 

.0284 

.0086 

.0091 

.0001 

.0567 

.0054 

.0138 

.0002 

■0393 

.04 
.03 
.04 


Shallow,  and 
low  color,  —  ■ 
much  trouble 


Chicopee,    Dingle    Brook 
Reservoir , 


.06 


'  Has  not  given  any  trouble  during  the  time  covered  by  these  examinations. 
'  Upper  Pond,  from  which  no  water  is  now  taken  directly. 


152 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  26 
Analyses  of  Ponds  and  Reservoirs  —  Concluded 

Unpolluted  Reservoirs  —  Concluded 
[Parts  per  100,000] 


Location 

Color 

Ammonia 

Nitrogen 

as 

Total 

Ni- 
trogen 

Ex- 

Condition 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

cess  of 
Chlo- 

Total 

Sus- 
pended 

rine 

Shallow,  and 

Leominster,  Morse  Reser- 

0.24 
0.2s 

.0006 
.0014 

.0093 
.0181 

.0045 

■0032 
.0045 

.0000 
.0001 

.0190 
•0374 

low  color,  —  < 
no  trouble 

Southbridge,     Storage 

.00 

0.24 

.0010 

.0137 

.0045 

.0038 

.0000 

.0282 

.00 

Deep,  and  high 
color, —  much- 
trouble 

Lynn,  Birch  Pond 

0.36 

.00 1  g 

.0272 

.0072 

.0065 

.0001 

.0560 

.00 

' 

Fitchburg,  Overlook  Res- 

O.IO 

0.1s 

0.14 

.0012 
.0019 
.0033 

.0151 
.o38r 
.0241 

.0034 
•0154 
.0058 

.0041 
.0039 
.0104 

.0001 
.0002 
.0003 

■031s 
.0748 
•05SS 

.02 

Deep,  and  low^ 

Springfield,  Ludlow  Reser- 

.01 

trouble 

Winchester,  Storage  Res- 

•13 

^ 

0.13 

.0021 

.0258 

.0082 

.0061 

.0002 

•OS39 

•OS 

Deep,  and  high  i 

Gloucester,  Dyke's  Brook 

O.S2 

0.48 

.0069 
.0018 

.0229 
.0214 

.0037 
.0049 

.0044 
.0042 

.0002 
.0001 

.0496 
•  0431 

trouble             [ 

Lynn,  Breed's  Pond    

.00 

0.50 

.0043 

.0221 

.0043 

.0043 

.0001 

.0463 

.00 

Deep,  and  low 
color,  —  little 

Greenfield,     Glen     Brook 

0.03 
0.2s 

.0010 
.C040 

.0046 
.0162 

.0021 

.0090 
.0062 

.0001 
.0001 

•0175 
.0372 

•03 

Worcester,  Leicester  Res- 

.01 

o.r4 

.0025 

.0104 

.0021 

.0076 

.0001 

.0273 

.02 

Deep,  and  high 
color,  —  no     " 

Boston,  Reservoir  4 

Boston,  Reservoir  2 

Cambridge,   Stony   Brook 

0.73 

I.OI 

0.73 

0-S4 

.0006 
.0008 

.0033 

.0003 

.0260 
.0296 

.0286 

.0147 

.0042 
•OOS3 

.0048 

.0056 
.0089 

.oisr 

.0044 

.0001 

.0002 

.0002 
.0001 

.0509 
.0608 

.0672 

.0290 

•03 
.10 

.09 

trouble 

Westfield,  Storage  Reser- 

.00 

0.7s 

.0012 

.0247 

.0048 

.0085 

.0001 

.0520 

•OS 

Deep,  and  low 
color,  —  no     ■ 
trouble 

Worcester,  Holden  Reser- 

0.19 

.0009 

•0I5S 

.0042 

.0038 

.0001 

.0319 

Average    of    26   unpol- 
luted reservoirs    .... 

0.48 

.0020 

.0227 

.0065 

.0077 

.0001 

.0488 

•03 

1  The  trouble  in  this  reservoir  has  been  attributed  to  mud  and  leaves  washed  in  by  the  mountain 
stream  which  feeds  it. 

2  Has  not  given  trouble  during  the  time  covered  by  these  examinations. 


TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS 


153 


In  making  comparisons  between  the  different  waters  given  in 
these  tables,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  amount  of  pollu- 
tion is  best  indicated  by  the  excess  of  chlorine. 

A  comparison  of  the  analyses  of  the  first  four  polluted  ponds 
which  give  much  trouble,  with  the  next  four  which  give  little, 
shows  that  the  quantity  of  each  of  the  constituents  in  the  former 
is  in  every  case  larger  than  in  the  latter.  As  this  is  mainly  the 
effect  of  pollution,  it  emphasizes  the  conclusion  before  reached, 
that  pollution  is  one  of  the  prominent  factors  in  producing  bad 
tastes  and  odors. 

It  will  also  be  seen  upon  examination  that  the  suspended  albu- 
minoid ammonia,  which  represents  approximately  the  quantity  of 
algae  and  other  organisms  in  the  water,  is  most  frequently  found 
in  waters  which  are  subject  to  bad  tastes  and  odors.  This  is 
shown  in  a  general  way  by  the  following  condensed  table :  — 


Table  27 

Suspended  Albuminoid  Ammonia 

Much 
Trouble 

Little 
Trouble 

No 
Trouble 

Polluted  ponds 

.0112 
.0165 
.0036 
.0081 

.0039 
.0044 
.0043 
.0036 

Polluted  reservoirs 

Unpolluted  ponds 

.0021 

Unpolluted  reservoirs 

.0046 

Having  shown  the  conditions  under  which  bad  tastes  and  odors 
are  most  prevalent,  it  may  be  asked  why  this  is  so.  The  answer 
to  this  question  must  necessarily  be  a  complicated  one,  and  must, 
with  our  present  knowledge,  involve  much  uncertainty;  but  the 
indications  point  to  the  supply  of  nitrogenous  food  for  animal 
and  vegetable  organisms  as  being  one  of  the  most  important 
factors. 

The  principal  sources  from  which  the  nitrogenous  compounds  in 
water  are  obtained  are  the  rainfall,  swamps  and  other  deposits  of 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  manured  fields,  and  domestic  and 
manufacturing  sewage.    The  nitrogen  derived  from  the  rainfall  is 


154  STATE  SANITATION 

insufficient  in  quantity  to  support  any  very  large  growth  of 
organisms.  It  is,  therefore,  mainly  from  other  sources  that  the 
nitrogen  must  come  to  produce  the  abnormal  growths  which 
cause  serious  trouble.  In  the  case  of  polluted  ponds  the  supply 
comes  mainly  from  sewage,  and  from  animal  manures  which  are 
produced  or  used  in  populous  districts.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
here,  even  at  the  risk  of  repetition,  that,  even  if  sewage  is  turned 
into  a  cesspool  and  filters  a  very  long  distance  before  reaching  a 
pond,  and  in  its  passage  through  the  ground  has  all  of  the  organic 
matter  in  it  destroyed,  it  will  still  contain  in  an  inorganic  form  a 
large  part  of  the  nitrogen,  and  may  have  nearly  the  same  effect  in 
promoting  growths  of  organisms  in  a  pond  as  if  the  sewage  was 
turned  into  it  directly.  The  source  from  which  uncleaned  reser- 
voirs may  obtain  a  large  part  of  their  nitrogen  is  the  vegetable 
matter  at  the  bottom.  A  good  instance  of  this  is  furnished  at  the 
Ludlow  Reservoir,  Springfield.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 
reservoir  water  in  summer,  when  the  growth  of  algae  is  at  its 
height,  is  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  winter;  and,  since  the 
amount  contained  in  the  water  entering  the  reservoir  through  its 
feeders  is  not  large,  the  only  source  from  which  it  seems  possible 
to  obtain  this  additional  nitrogen  is  the  reservoir  bottom.  With 
regard  to  the  depth  and  size,  and  absence  of  very  shallow  flowage, 
this  reservoir  ranks  high  among  those  in  the  state. 

As  a  further  indication  that  depth  is  less  important  than  the 
food  supply,  the  case  of  PilHng's  Pond  in  Lynnfield  may  be  cited. 
This  is  a  very  old  storage  reservoir,  made  for  mill  purposes  by 
flowing  a  large  level  meadow  to  a  depth  of  four  feet.  The  average 
depth  of  the  pond,  including  the  shallow  portions  near  the  edges, 
is  about  three  feet.  At  the  time  of  the  examination  it  was  kept 
constantly  full.  The  area  of  the  pond  is  in  the  neighborhood  of 
eighty-five  acres.  Examinations  made  during  the  summer  of 
1889  showed  that,  notwithstanding  the  small  depth  and  the  con- 
sequent high  temperature  of  the  water  which  at  times  reached 
80°  F.,  the  water  did  not  contain  any  abnormal  growth  of  organ- 
isms, or  become  offensive.  This  comparatively  favorable  result 
appears  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  reservoir  is  so  old  that  the 
available  food  has  been  removed  from  the  mud  at  the  bottom. 


TASTE  AND  ODOR  OF  SURFACE  WATERS         155 

To  avoid  giving  the  impression  that  bad  tastes  and  odors  are 
caused  only  by  an  abundance  of  nitrogenous  organisms,  it  is  well 
to  cite  the  case  of  Naukeag  Pond  in  Ashburnham,  which  had  a 
very  disagreeable  odor  when  it  was  examined  in  the  spring  of 
1888  and  again  in  1889.  This  pond  is  deep  and  unpolluted,  and 
did  not  contain  an  unusual  amount  either  of  organisms  or  of 
nitrogen.  Cases  of  this  kind  are,  however,  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule. 

The  most  important  conclusions  to  be  reached  from  this  study 
of  bad  tastes  and  odors  are,  that  from  this  standpoint  a  water 
supply  should  not  be  chosen  which  receives  much  sewage,  either 
directly  or  after  purification;  and  that,  if  water  is  to  be  stored  in 
a  new  artificial  storage  reservoir,  it  should  have  the  vegetable 
matter  removed  from  its  bottom  and  sides. 


XVII 

THE  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS 

By  Frederic  P.  Stearns 

[This  paper  illustrates  the  best  methods  then  in  vogue  for  studying  the  pollution 
of  streams  by  chemical  analysis.  The  force  of  the  paper  lies  in  the  quantitative 
study  of  dilution.  Part  I,  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  785.  — 
G.  C.  W.I 

There  are  many  instances  in  which  sewage  is  discharged  into  a 
stream  without  producing  a  degree  of  pollution  which  is  apparent 
to  the  senses,  or  which  is  seriously  objectionable  where  the  stream 
is  not  used  for  the  purposes  of  domestic  water  supply.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  stream  receives  so  much 
sewage  that  it  becomes  very  foul  and  offensive  to  those  living 
near  it. 

The  dividing  line  between  these  two  conditions  must  always 
remain  somewhat  indefinite,  both  on  account  of  a  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  what  degree  of  pollution  is  permissible,  and  because 
of  the  great  difference  in  the  conditions  at  different  places,  such 
as,  for  instance,  the  character  of  the  sewage;  the  fluctuations  in 
the  flow  of  the  stream,  occasioned  by  its  use  for  mill  purposes; 
the  existence  of  mill  ponds  in  which  sewage  deposits  may  accumu- 
late; and  the  presence  of  population  along  the  banks  below  the 
point  where  the  sewage  is  discharged.  At  the  present  time  the 
dividing  line  is  rendered  still  more  indefinite  by  a  lack  of  informa- 
tion as  to  the  effect  of  a  given  quantity  of  sewage  upon  a  given 
quantity  of  water. 

The  investigation  of  the  rivers  in  Massachusetts  furnishes  some 
information  upon  this  subject,  which  will  be  presented  in  this 
section. 

There  are  some  instances  in  which  the  polluting  matter  from 
factories  is  more  important  in  its  visible  effect  upon  a  stream 
than  domestic  sewage;  but  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  where  the 

IS6 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  157 

population  is  provided  with  sewers  discharging  into  a  stream,  the 
domestic  sewage  is  the  controlHng  factor.  In  attempting  to  deter- 
mine a  permissible  ratio  between  the  amount  of  sewage  and  water, 
we  are  confronted  by  another  trouble;  namely,  the  variable 
amount  of  polluting  matter  contained  in  sewage  from  different 
communities;  but,  as  this  is  due  to  the  different  amounts  of 
water  used  in  different  places  rather  than  to  variations  in  the 
amount  of  polluting  matter  contributed  per  person,  this  difficulty 
will  be  avoided  if  we  adopt  as  a  basis  for  calculations  the  relation 
of  the  population  to  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  in  the  stream. 
The  volume  flowing  in  streams  is  commonly  expressed  in  cubic 
feet  per  second;  but,  in  adopting  this  as  a  unit,  it  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  avoid  too  small  quantities,  to  make  the  unit  of  popu- 
lation 1,000. 

The  quantity  of  water  which  will  dilute  the  sewage  of  1,000 
persons  sufficiently  to  render  it  unobjectionable  for  all  purposes 
except  drinking  can  be  determined  by  two  methods:  first,  by 
actual  experience  in  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  streams,  where 
the  population  connected  with  the  sewers  and  the  volume  of 
water  flowing  in  the  stream  are  known;  and,  second,  by  deter- 
mining by  chemical  analysis  the  composition  of  the  water  of  a 
stream  which  has  been  polluted  by  sewage  to  the  greatest  per- 
missible extent,  and  then  determining  by  calculation  what 
relation  of  population  to  volume  of  water  will  produce  the  same 
composition. 

The  effect  which  the  sewage  of  a  given  population  may  be 
expected  to  produce  upon  the  composition  of  the  water  into  which 
it  is  discharged  will  be  understood  best  if  the  second  method  is 
first  discussed.  In  order  to  make  the  calculations  there  referred 
to,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  actual  amount  of  one  or  more 
constituents  contributed  to  sewage  per  inhabitant,  which  can  be 
determined  best  from  analyses  of  sewage  where  the  contributing 
population  and  the  quantity  of  sewage  are  known,  together  with 
the  corresponding  analysis  of  the  water  supply  which  by  the  pol- 
lution became  sewage.  These  data  are  accessible  in  the  report  of 
the  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge,  1884, 
which  contains  181   analyses  made  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Dibden  of 


158  STATE  SANITATION 

samples  collected  so  that  they  would  fairly  represent  the  average 
London  sewage,  and  in  the  monthly  reports  of  the  water  supply 
of  the  metropoKs.  Estimating  from  the  population  and  the  dry- 
weather  flow  of  sewage  at  this  time,  the  volume  equalled  thirty- 
seven  United  States  gallons  per  person  per  day;  but,  in  order  to 
allow  for  a  little  rain  water  at  the  time  when  some  of  the  samples 
were  collected,  the  average  volume  is  estimated  at  forty  gallons 
per  person  per  day,  equal  to  333  pounds. 

The  analysis  of  this  sewage  and  the  corresponding  average 
analysis  of  the  water  supplied  to  London  at  the  same  time  are  as 
follows,  the  figures  given  representing  parts  per  100,000:  — 

Table  28 


Free  _ 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid 
Ammonia 

Dissolved 
Solids 

Chlorine 

Sewage 

4.5160 
.0000 

•5471 
.0078 

84.7 
27-5 

15.0 
1.62 

Water 

Difference 

4.5160 

•5393 

57-2 

13-38 

These  differences  represent  the  matter  added  to  the  water  to 
make  it  sewage,  and  from  them  and  the  known  weight  of  sewage 
per  person  (333  pounds)  the  absolute  amount  of  each  of  these  con- 
stituents contributed  per  person  may  be  estimated  with  the 
following  results:  — 


Free  Ammonia 
,015  pounds 


Albuminoid  Ammonia 
.0018  pounds 


Dissolved  Solids 
.191  pounds 


Chlorine 

.045  pounds 


The  volume  of  sewage  with  the  corresponding  population  and 
analyses  are  not  available  in  any  other  place  where  the  sewage  is 
of  normal  character,  except  London;  but  the  relative  amounts  of 
the  different  constituents  can  be  determined  at  other  places,  as, 
for  instance,  at  Lawrence  and  Worcester,  Mass.  The  average 
analyses  of  water  and  sewage  at  Lawrence  are  as  follows,  the 
figures  representing  parts  per  100,000:  — 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS 

Table  29 


159 


Free 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid 
Ammonia 

Dissolved 
Solids 

Chlorine 

Sewage 

Water 

1.8202 
.0014 

•5302 
.0107 

35-63 
3-83 

5-25 
0.21 

Difference 

I.8188 

•5195 

31.80 

5-04 

Analyses  of  Worcester  sewage,  made  in   1872,   and  recent 
analyses  of  the  water  supply,  are  as  follows :  — 


Table  30 


Free 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid 
Ammonia 

Dissolved 
SoUds 

Chlorine 

Sewage 

Water 

1.8760 
.0020 

.3160 
.0158 

25-35 
2.65 

4.17 
0.14 

Difference 

1.8740 

.3002 

22.70 

4-03 

If  at  each  of  these  three  places  the  amount  of  free  ammonia 
is  assumed  as  the  unit,  the  ratio  of  the  other  constituents  to  it 
is  as  follows :  — 


Table  31 


Free 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid 
Ammonia 

Dissolved 
SoHds 

Chlorine 

London 

I 
I 

I 

0.12 
0.29 
0.16 

12.7 

17-5 
12. 1 

3-0 
2.8 

Lawrence 

Worcester 

2.2 

If  the  amount  of  free  ammonia  contributed  per  person  at  each 
of  these  places  is  the  same  as  at  London,  then,  by  calculation  from 
these  ratios,  the  amount  of  each  of  the  other  constituents  would 
be:  — 


i6o 


STATE  SANITATION 

Table  32 


Pounds 

London 

Lawrence 

Worcester 

.015 
.CIS 
.015 

.0018 

.0043 
.0024 

.191 

.262 
.181 

.045 
.042 

•033 

Making  an  average  of  the  above  by  allowing  the  observations 
at  London  and  Lawrence  full  weight,  and  those  at  Worcester  half 
weight,  the  quantities  given  below  are  obtained,  which  may  be 
adopted,  for  further  calculations,  as  the  standard  amounts  of  each 
of  these  constituents  contributed  daily  per  inhabitant  to  change 
water  into  sewage :  — 

Free  Ammonia  Albuminoid  Ammonia  Dissolved  Solids  Chlorine 

.015  pounds  .003  pounds  .218  pounds  .042  pounds 

Using  these  figures  as  a  basis,  we  may  determine  the  parts  per 
100,000  of  each  of  these  constituents  added  to  water  to  make 
sewage  of  different  degrees  of  dilution.  In  most  cases  the  amount 
of  each  originally  contained  in  the  water  is  so  small  that  it  may  be 
neglected,  in  which  case  the  calculated  quantity  will  represent  the 
actual  composition  of  the  sewage. 

Table  ^;^ 
Calculated  Composition  of  Sewage  of  Different  Degrees  of  Dilution 

[Parts  per  100,000] 


Volume  of  Water 
Per  Capita 

Ammonia 

Dissolved 
Solids 

(Gallons) 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Chlorine 

40 

4-5° 

.90 

65^4 

12.6 

50 

3.60 

.72 

52^3 

lO.I 

60 

3.00 

.60 

45^3 

8.4 

70 

2.57 

•52 

37^4 

7.2 

80 

2.25 

•45 

32^7 

6^3 

90 

2.00 

.40 

29.1 

5^6 

100 

1.80 

•36 

26.2 

5-0 

120 

1.50 

•30 

21.8 

4.2 

150 

1.20 

•24 

17.4 

3-4 

POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS 


i6i 


If  the  above  table  is  continued  so  as  to  include  much  greater 
degrees  of  dilution,  then  we  have  presented  the  conditions  which 
obtain  when  sewage  is  discharged  into  streams.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, as  the  dilution  becomes  greater  and  the  effect  of  the  pollut- 
ing matters  of  the  sewage  less  and  less  marked,  it  becomes  more 
necessary  to  take  into  account  the  original  composition  of  the 
water  with  which  the  sewage  is  mingled.  In  addition  to  this  no 
allowance  is  made  for  the  loss  of  free  and  albuminoid  ammonia, 
which  sometimes  takes  place  when  sewage  is  highly  diluted,  as 
will  be  shown  subsequently. 


Table  34 

Amounts  of  Ammonia,  Dissolved  Solids  and  Chlorine  added  to  Streams 

BY  Domestic  Sewage  for  Various  Ratios  of  Population  to 

Quantity  of  Water  Flowing 

[Parts  per  loo.ooo] 


Volume  of  Water 

Ammonia 

Dissolved 
Solids 

Cubic  Feet  Per 

Second  Per 

1,000  Persons 

Gallons  Per 
Capita 
Per  Day 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Chlorine 

I.O 

1-5 
2.0 

323 

646 

969 

1,292 

•5580 
.2790 
.i860 
•1395 

.1114 

•0557 
.0371 
.0278 

8.10 

4-05 
2.70 
2.02 

1.56 
.78 

•52 

•39 

2-5 

3-0 
4.0 
5-0 
6.0 
7.0 

1,615 
1,938 
2,584 
3,230 
3,876 
4,522 

.1116 
.0930 
.0697 
.0558 
.0465 
•0399 

.0223 
.0186 
.0139 
.0111 
.0093 
.0080 

1.62 
1-35 

I.OI 

0.81 
0.67 
0.58 

•31 
.26 
.19 
.16 

•13 
.11 

8.0 
9.0 

lO.O 

15.0 

20.0 
30.0 
40.0 
50.0 

lOO.O 

5,168 

S,8i4 

6,463 

9,694 

12,926 

19,389 

25,852 

32,315 

64,630 

•0349 
.0310 
.0279 
.0186 
.0139 
.0093 
.0070 
.0056 
.0028 

.0070 
.0062 
.0056 
.0037 
.0028 
.0019 
.0014 
.0011 
.0006 

0.51 

0.45 
0.40 
0.27 
0.20 
0.13 

O.IO 

0.08 

0.04 

.10 
.09 
.08 

•05 
.04 

•03 
.02 
.02 
.01 

1 62  STATE  SANITATION 

In  order  to  make  practical  use  of  this  table  in  determining  the 
greatest  amount  of  domestic  sewage  which  can  be  turned  into  a 
stream  without  making  it  offensive,  it  is  necessary  to  compare 
the  calculated  analyses  of  the  table  with  observed  analyses  of 
polluted  streams.  In  making  such  comparisons,  the  free  ammonia, 
which  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  sewage,  and  which  is  found 
only  in  extremely  small  quantities  in  unpolluted  streams,  is  the 
best  index. 

The  Blackstone  River,  a  short  distance  below  the  point  where  it 
receives  the  sewage  of  Worcester,  contained  on  an  average  during 
the  two  years  ending  June  i,  1889,  0.2160  parts  per  100,000  of  free 
ammonia.  The  stream  at  this  place  is  very  foul  and  offensive.  At 
Uxbridge,  sixteen  miles  further  down  stream,  where  the  sewage  is 
further  diluted  to  a  considerable  extent  by  cleaner  water  from  the 
tributaries,  the  average  free  ammonia  was  o.ioii.  The  water  at 
this  place  is  so  much  polluted  as  to  affect  its  quahty  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  but  it  is  not  generally  offensive  to  those  living  on 
the  banks  of  the  stream.  At  Millville,  in  the  town  of  Blackstone, 
still  further  down  stream,  where  the  dilution  is  still  greater,  the 
average  free  ammonia  is  0.0455,  and  the  river  is  inoffensive.  The 
odor  of  the  water,  however,  when  a  sample  is  agitated  in  a  bottle, 
as  observed  by  the  chemist,  is  generally  musty  and  disagreeable, 
and  on  a  few  occasions  offensive.  The  free  ammonia  at  this  place 
was  at  one  time  as  high  as  0.0896. 

Stacy's  Brook  in  Swampscott,  during  the  time  of  its  examina- 
tion, received  much  sewage  from  the  easterly  portion  of  Lyim, 
and  contained  on  an  average  0.1858  parts  per  100,000  of  free 
ammonia.  The  stream  has  a  foul  appearance,  and  the  samples 
generally  had  an  offensive  odor  even  during  those  portions  of  the 
year  when,  on  account  of  the  high  flow,  the  free  ammonia  was 
considerably  less  than  the  average  above  given. 

A  single  sample  from  Began  Brook,  Natick,  collected  in  June, 
1889,  ^iid  having  0.1200  parts  of  free  ammonia,  was  characterized 
by  the  chemist  as  having  a  distinctly  musty  odor  when  cold,  and  a 
strongly  musty  and  disagreeable  odor  when  hot. 

Samples  taken  in  September,  1888,  from  Coachlace  Brook  in 
Chnton,  which  is  a  very  foul  stream,  had  an  average  free  ammonia 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  163 

of  0.1955,  and  an  offensive  odor.  The  pollution  of  this  stream  is 
partly  by  sewage  and  partly  by  wool-washing  refuse.  At  the  same 
time  four  samples  were  taken  from  the  mouth  of  the  south  branch 
of  the  Nashua  River,  below  Coachlace  Brook,  which  had  an  aver- 
age free  ammonia  of  0.0264.  The  odor  of  the  samples  was  faint, 
and  the  river  did  not  have  a  noticeable  odor  when  the  samples 
were  collected.  In  one  of  the  samples  the  free  ammonia  was 
0.0444. 

Two  samples  collected  from  the  Charles  River,  below  Milford, 
where  it  is  a  very  small  stream,  one  taken  a  week  later  than  the 
other,  in  July,  1890,  contained  respectively  0.1570  and  0.1320 
parts  of  free  ammonia.  The  first  had  only  a  faint  odor,  and  the 
second  was  decidedly  offensive.  This  case  is  introduced,  in  part, 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  the  amount  of  ammonia  is  by 
no  means  an  unfaiHng  index  of  the  amount  of  odor  from  sewage. 
It  is,  however,  the  best  index  that  we  have  where  the  pollution  is 
occasioned  by  domestic  sewage. 

Several  instances  might  be  enumerated  of  streams  which  are 
polluted  by  sewage  so  that  the  water  contains  from  0.0 100  to 
0.0300  parts  of  free  ammonia,  without  having  offensive  odors. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  foregoing  data  are  insufficient  for  reach- 
ing a  definite  conclusion,  and  a  further  study  of  the  subject  is  very 
much  needed.  In  the  meantime,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
solve  practical  problems,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  limit  the 
debatable  ground  as  far  as  may  be  justified  by  the  observations. 
For  this  purpose  two  lines  have  been  drawn  across  the  table  given 
above,  to  include  those  ratios  of  population  to  volume  con- 
cerning which  there  may  be  doubt.  These  Knes  include  volumes 
from  2.5  to  7.0  cubic  feet  per  second  per  1,000  persons,  and  free 
ammonia  from  0.0399  to  0.1116. 

With  smaller  volumes  of  water,  the  pollution  is  so  great  as  to  be 
inadmissible.  With  larger  volumes,  the  pollution  is  so  small  as  to 
be  clearly  admissible  from  the  standpoint  of  the  offensiveness  of 
the  water.  From  other  standpoints,  however,  such  as  the  use  of 
water  for  certain  manufacturing  purposes,  the  amount  of  dilution 
should  be  greater;  and  in  a  stream  used  for  domestic  water  supply 
it  cannot  be  said,  with  our  present  knowledge,  that  any  degree  of 
dilution  will  make  the  water  entirely  safe  for  use. 


1 64  STATE  SANITATION 

All  of  the  foregoing  relates  to  the  pollution  of  the  water  itself, 
as  if  the  sewage  emptied  into  a  stream  of  unvarying  volume,  flow- 
ing with  sufficient  rapidity  to  prevent  deposits.  If,  instead,  the 
sewage  is  turned  into  a  stream  where  it  is  ponded  by  a  dam,  or  if 
there  are  ponds  on  the  stream  below  the  point  of  discharge,  the 
solid  particles  of  the  sewage  may  accumulate  and  decompose, 
giving  off  offensive  gases.  This  is  more  Ukely  to  occur  if  the  de- 
posits are  covered  with  foul  water  in  which  the  dissolved  oxygen 
has  been  used  up,  because  the  decomposition  will  then  be  putre- 
factive rather  than  a  process  of  oxidation.  The  fluctuations  in  the 
height  of  a  stream,  where  they  cause  large  areas  to  be  alternately 
covered  with  water,  and  left  bare,  are  also  unfavorable  for  the 
proper  disposal  of  sewage.  In  short,  there  are  many  things,  such 
as  the  variations  in  the  volume  flowing  in  a  stream  occasioned  by 
its  use  for  mill  purposes,  the  amount  and  character  of  manufac- 
turing wastes,  and  the  subsequent  use  of  the  water  for  different 
kinds  of  manufacturing,  which  require  careful  consideration  in 
each  case,  and  often  a  considerable  variation  from  any  general 
rules  which  may  be  laid  down. 

The  other  method  of  determining  the  ratio  of  population  to  flow 
of  streams,  referred  to  in  the  early  part  of  this  section  of  the  re- 
port, depends  upon  observations  of  the  effect  of  discharging  the 
sewage  of  a  given  population  into  a  stream  of  known  size.  In 
this  state  there  are  but  two  streams  where  a  comparison  of  this 
kind  is  practicable;  namely,  the  Blackstone  and  Merrimack 
rivers.  The  former  has  discharged  into  it  the  sewage  of  the  city 
of  Worcester,  with  an  estimated  population,  in  1888,  of  76,500. 
The  total  population  above  the  point  where  samples  were  col- 
lected was  at  the  same  time  77,500.  The  volume  of  water  flowing 
in  the  river  during  working  hours  was  determined,  but  not  the 
total  quantity  flowing  in  the  whole  twenty-four  hours. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  latter  quantity,  which  is  needed  for  these 
comparisons,  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  the  flow  per  square 
mile  of  drainage  area,  as  determined  by  the  actual  measurement 
of  the  flow  of  some  other  stream  having  a  known  drainage  area. 
The  Sudbury  River  measurements  for  the  period  under  considera- 
tion are  the  most  appUcable  to  this  case. 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  165 

The  average  flow  of  the  Blackstone  River  for  the  period  under 
consideration,  reckoned  upon  this  basis,  was  122  cubic  feet  per 
second;  and,  if  we  assume  that  the  river  received  the  sewage  of 
70,000  of  the  population,  then  the  volume  per  1,000  persons  would 
be  1.77  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  amount  of  pollution  at  this 
place,  as  already  stated,  is  much  greater  than  is  permissible.  At 
Uxb ridge,  which  is  sixteen  miles  further  down  stream,  the  flow 
upon  the  basis  above  given  is  279  cubic  feet  per  second;  and,  if  we 
assume  that  the  sewage  of  3,000  persons  enters  the  river  between 
Worcester  and  Uxbridge,  making  a  total  of  73,000,  the  volume 
flowing  per  1,000  persons  was  3.88  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
water  at  Uxbridge  was  so  much  polluted  that  its  quahty  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  was  affected,  but  it  was  not  generally  offensive 
to  those  hving  upon  the  banks  of  the  stream.  The  amount  of 
pollution  at  this  place  was  increased  somewhat  by  the  manufac- 
turing refuse  turned  into  the  river  below  Worcester. 

The  Merrimack  River  will  be  considered  with  reference  to  the 
effect  of  the  sewage  of  Lowell  upon  it.  In  this  case  observations 
for  more  than  three  years  are  available.  The  average  flow  of  the 
river  has  been  8,720  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  average  popu- 
lation of  Lowell  for  the  same  time  74,500;  hence,  the  volume 
flowing  has  equalled  117  cubic  feet  per  seond,  per  1,000  persons. 
If,  instead  of  the  average  flow,  we  take  the  low-water  flow  of 
2,200  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  population  as  given  by  the 
census  of  1890,  the  volume  per  1,000  persons  is  28  cubic  feet  per 
second.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  former  of  these  results 
represents  a  greater  dilution  than  any  indicated  by  the  table, 
while  the  latter  shows  a  dilution  four  times  as  great  as  the 
highest  about  which  there  is  any  doubt.  The  discharge  of  this 
sewage  into  the  river,  added  to  that  which  has  already  entered 
it  from  cities  and  towns  above,  together  with  a  vast  amount 
of  manufacturing  sewage,  has  not  affected  the  water  enough  to 
prevent  the  city  of  Lawrence,  ten  miles  below,  from  adopting 
and  maintaining  a  water  supply  from  this  source;  although  the 
danger  to  health  which  has  been  found  to  exist  in  this  water 
supply  has  led  the  city  authorities  to  contemplate  the  introduc- 
tion of  water  from  a  new  source.     This  is  a  striking  instance 


1 66  STATE  SANITATION 

of  the  extent  to  which  a  great  river  can  dilute  the  sewage  of  a 
very  large  population;  but  the  fact  that  the  water  is  not  worse 
than  it  is,  is  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to  the  so-called  self-purify- 
ing power  of  streams,  which  will  now  be  discussed. 

Self-Purification  or  Streams 

This  subject  may  be  discussed  with  reference  to  the  subsequent 
use  for  drinking  of  water  which  has  been  polluted  by  sewage,  or 
from  the  other  standpoint  of  rendering  inoffensive  a  stream 
which  has  been  made  offensive  in  the  same  way.  In  the  case  of 
the  stream  used  for  drinking,  chemical  purification  is  less  impor- 
tant than  the  destruction  of  disease  germs,  so  that  the  purification 
should  be  considered  from  a  bacterial  as  weU  as  a  chemical  stand- 
point; while  in  the  case  of  the  offensive  stream  the  improvement 
is  well  indicated  by  chemical  analysis  alone. 

The  investigation  of  rivers  in  Massachusetts  has  been  almost 
whoUy  chemical,  and  the  subject  will  therefore  be  discussed 
mainly  from  this  standpoint.  In  comparing  a  sample  of  water 
taken  from  a  stream  at  a  point  where  it  is  much  polluted  with  one 
taken  further  down  stream,  there  is  often  a  very  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  the  water  at  the  lower  point,  owing  to  the 
dilution  caused  by  purer  tributaries,  and  by  water  filtering  into 
the  stream  from  subterranean  sources.  It  is  only  when  the  effect 
of  this  dilution  is  eliminated  that  we  can  determine  the  chemical 
changes  which  have  taken  place,  as  a  result  of  the  purif3dng  action 
of  the  stream. 

The  Blackstone  River  furnishes  a  good  illustration  of  a  change 
due  largely  to  dilution.  The  chlorine  just  below  Worcester  is  i .  19 
parts  per  100,000,  while  at  Millville  it  is  but  0.46.  As  the  chlorine 
compounds  found  in  water  are  very  permanent,  this  cannot  be 
attributed  to  a  reduction  in  the  actual  amount  of  chlorine,  but 
rather  to  its  diffusion  in  a  greater  amount  of  water.  This  is  known 
to  be  the  case  in  this  instance,  as  there  is  added  to  the  water  which 
flows  past  Worcester,  before  it  reaches  Millville,  three  times  its 
own  volume  of  water  containing  much  less  chlorine. 

If,  instead  of  comparing  analyses  directly,  we  make  use  of  them 
in  connection  with  the  amount  of  water  flowing  to  determine  the 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  167 

number  of  pounds  of  each  constituent  actually  carried  by  the 
river  in  a  given  time,  we  eliminate  the  effect  of  dilution,  except 
that  the  number  of  pounds  found  at  the  lower  station  includes 
not  only  the  amount  put  in  at  the  upper  one,  with  such  modifica- 
tions as  may  be  due  to  the  purifying  action  of  the  stream,  but  also 
the  number  of  pounds  of  each  constituent  added  at  intermediate 
points,  both  from  natural  and  artificial  sources. 

In  the  case  of  the  Blackstone  River,  the  amount  of  impurity  in 
the  water  just  below  Worcester  is  so  great,  in  comparison  with 
that  entering  the  stream  between  this  place  and  stations  further 
down  the  stream,  that  it  is  feasible  to  reach  conclusions  of  some 
value  as  to  the  purifying  effect  of  the  stream,  without  making 
any  allowance  for  the  added  impurities.  More  accurate  results 
can  be  obtained,  however,  by  making  corrections  for  the  im- 
purities added  to  the  river  from  natural  sources.  This  can  be 
done  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  no  analyses  of  the  tributaries  have  been  made,  because  the 
quantity  of  water  brought  in  by  tributary  streams  is  proportion- 
ate to  their  watersheds,  and  the  general  character  of  unpolluted 
surface  waters  in  this  vicinity  is  known.  No  correction  is  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  the  free  ammonia,  because  the  amount  nat- 
urally found  in  streams  is  insignificant  when  compared  with  that 
entering  the  river  from  sewage.  The  correction  for  chlorine  is  the; 
largest  one,  and  this  is  definitely  known  from  the  normal  chlorine 
of  this  region.  The  corrections  for  albuminoid  ammonia  and 
nitrates  are  less  accurate. 

It  has  not  been  found  practicable  to  make  a  correction  for  the 
artificial  pollution,  because  the  population  sewering  directly  into 
the  stream  and  the  character  and  extent  of  the  manufacturing 
wastes  are  unknown.  In  consequence  of  the  omission  of  this 
correction,  any  purification  which  may  be  found  to  have  taken 
place  between  Worcester  and  a  point  below  occurs  notwithstand- 
ing the  artificial  pollution  added  to  the  stream  at  intermediate 
points. 

Two  tables  are  given  below:  the  first  shows  the  average  number 
of  pounds  per  day  of  free  and  albuminoid  ammonia,  nitrates  and 
chlorine  passing  Worcester,  Uxbridge  and  Millville  during  the  two 


i68 


STATE  SANITATION 


years  ending  May  31,  1889;  the  second  table  is  the  same  as  the 
first,  except  that  the  quantities  passing  the  two  lower  stations  are 
diminished  by  the  amount  of  each  constituent  naturally  brought 
in  by  tributaries  below  Worcester. 

Table  35 

Table  showing  the  Amoxtnts  or  Different  Constituents  in  the  Water 
WHICH  PASSES  Three  Points  on  the  Blackstone  River 

[Pounds  per  day] 


Ammonia 

Nitrogen  as 
Nitrates 

Chlorine 

Total 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Nitrogen 

Worcester 

Uxbridge 

Millville 

1728 
1629 
1299 

826 

454 
734 

218 
491 
611 

8630 
10406 
13166 

.3000 
.2581 
.2891 

Table  36 

Same  as  Above,  except  that  the  Quantities  at  Uxbridge  and  Millville 

are  reduced  to  allow  for  the  impurities  naturally 

brought  in  by  tributaries  below  worcester 


[Pounds  per  day] 


Ammonia 

Nitrogen  as 
Nitrates 

Chlorine 

Total 

Free 

Albuminoid 

Nitrogen 

Worcester 

Uxbridge 

MiUville 

1728 
1629 
1299 

826 
306 
382 

218 
426 

457 

8630 
8738 
9205 

.3000 
.2272 
.2156 

Before  drawing  any  conclusions  from  the  tables,  it  may  be  well 
to  indicate  the  limitations  of  accuracy  of  these  investigations. 
The  samples  collected  just  below  Worcester  were  usually  obtained 
on  week  days  in  the  latter  part  of  the  forenoon,  and  consequently 
represented  the  morning  flow  of  sewage  diluted  with  the  flow  of 
the  river  during  working  hours.  Samples  were  taken  at  the  lower 
points  a  day  or  two  later  than  at  Worcester,  but  the  time  was  not 
sufficient  to  permit  the  water  to  pass  from  Worcester  to  these 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  169 

stations.  If  a  longer  time  had  elapsed,  there  was  great  danger 
that  the  comparison  might  be  affected  by  intervening  rains,  which 
would  increase  the  dilution  at  the  lower  stations.  In  any  method 
of  collection  with  points  so  far  apart  on  a  stream  containing  many 
mill  ponds,  there  is  no  assurance  that  any  given  sample  at  the 
lower  station  represents  the  day  or  night  flow  of  sewage  at  the 
upper  station.  In  view  of  these  conditions  affecting  the  accuracy 
of  the  results,  it  is  obvious  that  too  much  stress  should  not  be 
laid  upon  small  variations  in  the  quantity  of  any  constituent,  and 
it  even  seemed  somewhat  doubtful  whether  the  average  of  obser- 
vations as  given  in  the  table  would  be  trustworthy.  To  test  this 
point,  the  results  obtained  at  different  periods  have  been  com- 
pared. Those  given  in  the  table  are,  as  already  stated,  based  upon 
the  analyses  of  the  first  two  years,  and  the  flow  of  the  river  as 
deduced  from  the  areas  of  the  watersheds  above  the  different 
points,  in  connection  with  the  recorded  yield  per  square  mile  of 
the  watershed  of  Sudbury  River  during  the  same  period.  The 
analyses  for  the  third  year,  June,  1889,  to  May,  1890,  inclusive, 
were  next  treated  in  the  same  way;  and  finally  the  analyses  from 
September,  1887,  to  December,  1888,  were  made  use  of  in  con- 
nection with  the  average  flow  of  the  river,  as  deduced  from  actual 
measurements  of  the  flow  during  working  hours.  The  results 
obtained  in  the  three  cases  corresponded  quite  nearly,  showing  a 
high  probabihty  that  the  general  results  given  in  the  tables  are 
trustworthy. 

Returning  to  the  second  of  these  tables,  we  find  that  the  albu- 
minoid ammonia  (which  represents  the  organic  nitrogen  both  in 
solution  and  in  suspension)  amounts  at  Worcester  to  826  pounds 
daily.  At  Uxbridge,  sixteen  miles  below,  the  quantity  is  reduced 
to  306  pounds,  showing  a  loss  of  rather  more  than  half,  which  may 
be  attributed  to  the  deposit  of  suspended  particles  and  the  de- 
composition of  a  portion  of  the  organic  matter  in  solution.  From 
Uxbridge  to  Millville  the  quantity  increased  from  306  to  382 
pounds,  which  may  be  due  to  the  growth  of  organisms  which 
appropriate  the  free  ammonia  and  nitrates,  and  to  the  increase 
from  artificial  pollution  caused  by  the  population  and  factories 
on  the  large  area  of  watershed  which  drains  into  the  river  below 


lyo  STATE  SANITATION 

Uxbridge.  It  might  be  thought  that  the  increase  from  these 
causes  would  be  insufi&cient  to  offset  the  decomposition  of  the 
organic  matter  of  the  Worcester  sewage,  and  this  would  probably 
be  the  case  were  it  not  that  the  portion  which  still  remains  in  the 
river  is  comparatively  stable  in  character. 

The  free  ammonia,  which  is  a  product  of  decomposition  and  a 
characteristic  component  of  sewage,  decreases,  from  Worcester  to 
Uxbridge,  from  1,728  to  1,629  pounds.  It  is  not  probable  that 
this  represents  the  whole  loss  of  free  ammonia  which  takes  place 
in  this  distance,  because  a  considerable  amount  must  have  been 
developed  below  Worcester  by  the  decomposition  of  the  dissolved 
and  suspended  organic  matter,  and  a  further  amount,  as  in  the 
case  of  other  constituents,  must  have  entered  with  the  sewage 
and  other  polluting  matters  turned  into  the  stream  at  different 
points  below  Worcester.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  increase 
of  nitrogen  as  nitrates,  from  218  pounds  at  Worcester  to  426 
pounds  at  Uxbridge,  which  is  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen 
of  the  free  ammonia.  From  Uxbridge  to  Millville  there  is  a  loss  of 
330  pounds  of  free  ammonia,  and  an  increase  of  nitrogen  as  ni- 
trates of  but  31  pounds.  In  this  case  the  loss  of  ammonia  does 
not  appear  to  be  occasioned  to  any  large  extent  by  oxidation. 
Some  of  the  nitrogen  is  undoubtedly  appropriated  by  suspended 
organisms,  and  some  by  fixed  plants. 

The  chlorine  shows  a  gradual  increase  from  point  to  point, 
which  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  population  below  Worcester. 

If  we  estimate  the  total  nitrogen  at  Worcester  and  Millville,  by 
methods  which  in  this  case  are  necessarily  approximate,  we  find 
3,000  pounds  at  Worcester  and  2,156  pounds  at  Millville,  leaving 
844  pounds  daily  unaccounted  for.  A  portion  of  this  is  un- 
doubtedly contained  in  the  suspended  matter,  which  settles  to 
the  bottom  in  mill  ponds  and  sluggish  places,  and  either  remains 
there  or  is  swept  down  the  stream  by  freshets,  thereby  generally 
escaping  without  being  represented  in  an  analysis.  It  is  possible 
that  some  of  the  ammonia  may  escape  into  the  air,  and  some  may 
be  appropriated  by  fixed  plants.  It  is  also  not  improbable  that 
a  portion  of  the  difference  may  be  due  to  the  unavoidable  in- 
accuracies in  comparisons  of  this  kind,  as  previously  indicated. 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  171 

If  from  this  consideration  of  details  we  turn  once  more  to  the 
general  results,  we  find  that  the  water  in  passing  from  Worcester 
to  Millville  loses  rather  more  than  one-half  of  its  organic  nitrogen, 
and  that  the  remaining  portion  is  comparatively  stable.  There 
is  a  loss  of  one-fourth  of  the  free  ammonia,  caused  partly  by  the 
oxidation  of  its  components  into  nitric  acid  and  water;  but  the 
striking  fact  remains,  that,  after  a  flow  of  twenty-three  miles, 
three-fourths  of  the  free  ammonia  remains  unchanged,  notwith- 
standing the  long  time  required  for  the  water  to  pass  this  dis- 
tance, owing  to  its  slow  movement  through  mill  ponds,  and  the 
aeration  which  it  receives  at  the  dams. 

It  is  known,  as  will  be  shown  subsequently,  that,  in  some 
instances  where,  by  reason  of  the  relatively  small  amount  of 
sewage  discharged  into  a  stream,  the  amount  of  ammonia  con- 
tributed to  it  is  also  small,  this  ammonia  disappears  rapidly  and 
completely.  In  the  Blackstone  River  the  absolute  quantity 
which  disappears  is  large,  but  the  proportionate  quantity  is 
small.  It  may  be  that  the  acid  liquors  turned  into  the  river  from 
the  iron  works  at  Worcester  prevent  a  rapid  oxidation  of  the 
ammonia,  and  the  great  amount  to  be  oxidized  may  also  be  an 
important  factor. 


XVIII 

THE    FILTRATION    OF    SEWAGE,    A    GENERAL    VIEW    OF 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  AT  THE  LAWRENCE 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

By  Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E. 

[This  is  a  brief  extract  from  a  long  report  on  the  filtration  of  sewage  and  water. 
The  scientific  deductions  from  the  work  done  at  Lawrence  during  these  early  years 
profoundly  affected  engineering  practice.  The  fuU  report  is  a  classic  which  should 
be  studied  by  all  students  of  sanitary  engineering.  Part  II,  Report  on  Water  Supply 
and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  577.  —  G.  C.  W.]] 

We  have  now  filtered  sewage  intermittently  through  clean  gravel 
stones,  larger  than  robins'  eggs,  through  filters  made  of  various 
grades  of  gravel  and  of  sand,  through  a  sand  whose  particles 
average  but  0.004  inch  in  diameter,  —  a  fine  granular  dust,  —  as 
well  as  through  soils  and  through  peat. 

With  the  gravels  and  sands,  from  the  coarsest  to  the  finest,  we 
find  that  purification  by  nitrification  takes  place  in  all,  when  the 
quantity  of  sewage  is  adapted  to  their  ability,  and  the  surface  is 
not  allowed  to  become  clogged  by  organic  matter  to  the  exclusion 
of  air. 

With  fine  soils,  containing,  in  addition  to  their  sand  grains,  two 
or  three  per  cent  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  and 
six  or  seven  per  cent  of  organic  matter,  we  find  that,  when  only 
six  inches  in  depth,  resting  upon  fine,  sandy  material,  they  retain 
water  so  long  that  the  quantity  that  can  be  applied  is  so  small, 
and  the  interval  in  which  this  must  settle  and  dry  away  to  allow 
air  to  enter  the  filter  is  so  long,  that  the  amount  of  sewage  that 
can  be  purified  is  very  small.  When  the  quantity  applied  is 
adapted  to  its  ability,  such  a  filter  may  give  an  excellent  efiiuent, 
quite  free  from  bacteria. 

With  greater  depth  of  soil  the  quantity  that  can  be  filtered  will 
evidently  become  less;  and,  with  the  depth  of  five  feet  of  such  a 
soil,  we  have  found  nitrification  did  not  take  place;  and,  although 
it  was  probable  that  no  bacteria  came  through,  the  organic  matter 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  173 

in  the  effluent  was  at  the  end  of  two  years  nearly  as  great  as  in  the 
sewage.  This  soil  remained  continually  so  nearly  saturated  that, 
when  only  5,000  gallons  per  acre  were  being  filtered  daily,  al- 
though free  to  drain  over  every  square  foot  of  the  bottom,  suffi- 
cient air  could  not  be  taken  in  to  produce  any  nitrification;  and 
the  chemical  result  with  this  material  was,  throughout  the  two 
years  of  its  trial,  nearly  the  same  as  would  be  expected  if  the 
filtration  had  been  made  continuous,  instead  of  intermittent. 

With  peat  upon  the  surface  of  a  filtration  area,  even  to  the 
depth  of  only  one  foot,  its  imperviousness  to  liquid  and  the 
quantity  that  it  will  retain  until  it  evaporates,  renders  inter- 
mittent filtration  impracticable;  and  a  sand  area  thus  covered 
with  peat  can  be  rendered  efficient  for  filtration  only  by  the 
removal  of  the  peat  from  the  surface. 

The  truths  in  regard  to  filtration  of  sewage  that  have  been 
made  manifest  by  the  experiments  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
in  the  past  two  years  can  be  appreciated  only  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  results  which  have  been  presented.  No  statement  of  gen- 
eral conclusions  can  convey  all  that  these  experiments  have  made 
known;  but,  to  one  who  has  carefully  considered  the  results  in 
detail,  it  may  be  useful  to  group  the  results  and  bring  out  some  of 
the  general  truths  with  more  clearness. 

The  experiments  with  gravel  stones  give  us  the  best  illustration 
of  the  essential  character  of  intermittent  filtration  of  sewage.  In 
these,  without  straining  the  sewage  sufficiently  to  remove  even  the 
coarser  suspended  particles,  the  slow  movement  of  the  Hquid  in 
thin  fihns  over  the  surface  of  the  stones,  with  air  in  contact, 
caused  to  be  removed  for  some  months  ninety-seven  per  cent  of 
the  organic  nitrogenous  matter,  a  large  part  of  which  was  in 
solution,  as  well  as  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  bacteria,  which 
were  of  course  in  suspension,  and  enabled  these  organic  matters 
to  be  oxidized  or  burned,  so  that  there  remained  in  the  effluent 
but  three  per  cent  of  the  decomposable  organic  matter  of  the 
sewage,  the  remainder  being  converted  into  harmless  mineral 
matter. 

The  mechanical  separation  of  any  part  of  the  sewage  by  strain- 
ing through  sand  is  but  an  incident,  which,  under  some  conditions, 


174  STATE  SANITATION 

favorably  modifies  the  result;  but  the  essential  conditions  are 
very  slow  motion  of  very  thin  films  of  liquid  over  the  surface  of 
particles  having  spaces  between  them  sufficient  to  allow  air  to  be 
continually  in  contact  with  the  films  of  liquid. 

With  these  conditions  it  is  essential  that  certain  bacteria  should 
be  present  to  aid  in  the  process  of  nitrification.  These,  we  have 
found,  come  in  the  sewage  at  all  times  of  the  year;  and  the  condi- 
tions just  mentioned  appear  to  be  most  favorable  for  their  efficient 
action,  and  at  the  same  time  most  destructive  to  them  and  to  all 
kinds  of  bacteria  that  are  in  the  sewage. 

In  grouping  the  results  of  our  experiments,  it  will  be  best  to 
refer  to  the  general  diagram  of  nitrates,  of  ammonias  and  of 
bacteria.  There  are  graphically  presented  these  elements  for 
the  sewage  and  for  most  of  the  tanks  that  have  been  used.^ 

As  nitrification,  or  the  burning  up  of  organic  matter,  is  the 

essential  step  in  purification  of  sewage  by  intermittent  filtration, 

we  will  first  follow  by  the  diagram  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  nitrates. 

The  nitrates  of  the  sewage  were  nearly  zero  from  beginning  to 

end. 

Passing  the  sHght  nitrification  in  January,  1888,  in  nearly  all 
of  the  tanks  when  sewage  was  first  applied,  we  have  through 
February  and  March  a  season  of  no  nitrification.  During  these 
months  the  temperature  of  the  effluents  had  been  about  36°  F. 
When  the  temperature  of  the  effluent  rose  to  39°  or  40°  in  the 
several  tanks,  a  slight  increase  in  the  nitrates  was  observed,  which 
continued  slowly  rising  until  about  50°  was  reached. 

This  was  true  of  all  of  the  filters  represented,  except  No.  5, 
which  was  filled  with  garden  soil,  in  which  no  appreciable  nitrifi- 
cation occurred  during  the  two  years.  Filter  No.  3,  not  repre- 
sented, which  was  composed  of  peat,  also  did  not  nitrify.  Of 
those  represented,  the  first  to  nitrify  are  those  presented  by  heavy 
lines,  No.  i.  No.  14,  No.  13  and  No.  12.  These  were  all  of  coarse, 
open  sand,  like  No.  i,  which  would  allow  air  to  enter  it  most 
freely;  and  those  began  first  and  burned  most  rapidly  in  which 
the  most  organic  matter  had  been  stored. 

^  For  this  diagram  the  reader  must  consult  the  original  paper. 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  175 

Filters  started  at  other  seasons  of  the  year  have  shown  us  that 
nitrification  does  not  become  active  until  there  is  an  accumulation 
of  organic  matter  that  may  be  burned. 

Following  those  filters  of  the  most  open  sand,  in  nitrification, 
came  the  mixed  sands  of  No.  6  and  No.  11,  which  allowed  air  to 
penetrate  them  less  freely.  These  were  followed  by  the  finest 
sand,  No.  4,  the  fine  sand  of  No.  2,  and  the  soil-covered  filter 
No.  7,  —  the  latter  being  more  than  a  month  later  than  the 
earliest. 

Nitrification  was  highest  in  all  of  these  filters  in  the  rapidly 
growing  months  of  May  and  June.  In  the  second  year  the  highest 
nitrates  were  in  general  at  the  same  season,  but  began  earher,  in 
the  latter  half  of  April,  and  continued  through  May.  With  the 
exception  of  the  increased  activity  of  nitrification  in  the  spring 
months,  when  in  several  of  the  filters  more  nitrogen  came  away  in 
the  efHuent  —  principally  as  nitrates  —  than  was  being  appKed 
in  the  sewage,  the  nitrates  of  the  efSuent  rise  and  fall,  in  the 
several  filters  which  are  purifying  the  sewage,  with  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  ammonias  in  the  sewage;  so  that,  in  the  winter 
months  of  1888-89,  while  the  nitrates  of  the  efiiuent  were  lower 
than  at  other  times,  we  find  that  the  sum  of  ammonias  of  the 
sewage  was  also  lower,  and  that  nitrification  at  that  time  was 
quite  as  complete  as  in  the  previous  months. 

Before  following  the  varying  and  exceptional  condition  of 
nitrification  in  some  of  the  filters,  we  will  turn  to  the  diagram 
of  ammonias,  and  see  how  they  were  in  general  affected  by 
nitrification. 

Upon  first  applying  sewage,  some  of  the  impurities  were  held 
back  by  the  sand  by  the  straining  process;  and,  so  far  as  this 
occurred,  the  finer  sands  held  back  for  a  longer  time  than  the 
coarser.  With  the  coarser  sands  of  No.  i  and  No.  6  there  was  a 
considerable  increase  in  ammonias  soon  after  the  chlorine  indi- 
cated that  Hquid  from  sewage  had  reached  the  outlet.  With  No. 
7,  No.  2  and  No.  4,  there  was  but  Httle  increase  in  the  ammonias 
for  some  weeks  after  the  original  water  in  the  sand  had  been 
expelled,  and  Hquid  from  sewage  had  permeated  all  parts  of  the 
filter. 


176  STATE  SANITATION 

All,  however,  gave  an  efifluent  at  some  time  before  nitrification 
began,  which  contained  from  twenty  to  forty  per  cent  as  much  free 
and  albxmiinoid  ammonia  as  the  sewage.  But  during  this  time,  in 
the  cold  months  of  a  very  cold  winter,  there  was  an  important 
step  in  purification  going  on.  This  was  the  conversion  of  albumi- 
noid ammonia  to  free  ammonia;  or,  to  state  the  case  more  defi- 
nitely, it  was  the  burning  up  of  a  part  of  the  organic  matter  by  the 
combination  of  oxygen  with  some  of  the  carbon,  producing  car- 
bonic acid,  and  leaving  the  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  that  were 
combined  with  this  carbon  to  form  ammonia,  and  thus  reducing 
the  amount  of  combined  nitrogen  which  in  our  analyses  appears 
as  albuminoid  ammonia.  This  is  as  complete  a  destruction  of 
organic  matter,  as  far  as  it  goes,  as  if  the  free  ammonia  were  again 
oxidized,  forming  nitric  acid  or  nitrates;  but  this  process  seldom 
if  ever  carries  the  destruction  of  the  organic  impurities  of  sewage 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  resulting  Uquid  contains  so  little  im- 
purity as  when  nitrification  takes  place.  We  find,  further,  that 
this  process  of  reducing  the  albuminoid  ammom'a  is  not  so 
destructive  to  bacteria  as  the  more  complete  process  of  nitrifica- 
tion. It  is,  however,  a  process  of  purification;  and  the  conditions 
of  intermittent  filtration  are  those  most  favorable  to  this  step  in 
purification. 

During  the  three  cold  months  previous  to  the  beginning  of  nitri- 
fication in  April,  1888,  we  have,  under  very  unfavorable  circum- 
stances, the  large  filters  in  the  field  filtering  intermittently  and 
purifying  without  nitrification.  The  sum  of  ammonias  were  — 
though  generally  lower  —  at  some  time  from  twenty  to  forty  per 
cent  of  the  sum  of  ammonias  of  the  sewage  applied ;  but  this  does 
not  express  the  degree  of  the  destruction  of  organic  impurities. 
We  are  unable  to  say,  in  regard  to  this  short  period,  how  much  was 
destroyed;  for  a  considerable  part  of  that  which  was  in  solid 
form  —  in  suspension  —  was  without  doubt  held  back,  and  may 
have  been  accumulating  in  the  sand.  If  we  compare  the  albumi- 
noid ammonia  of  the  effluent  from  the  several  tanks  in  the  field 
with  the  albuminoid  ammonia  of  the  sewage,  we  find  that  but 
about  five  per  cent  was  coming  through  the  filter;  but,  if  we  sup- 
pose that  all  that  was  in  suspension  in  the  sewage  was  mechani- 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  177 

cally  held  back  by  the  sand,  we  still  find  that  the  albuminoid 
ammonia  of  the  effluent  was  only  twenty  per  cent  of  the  albumi- 
noid ammonia  that  was  in  solution  in  the  sewage;  that  is,  in  the 
process  of  intermittent  filtration  previous  to  the  beginning  of 
nitrification,  there  was  going  on  within  the  filter  a  chemical 
change  by  which  a  considerable  part  of  the  organic  impurities 
were  burned  up,  thus  reducing  the  combined  nitrogen  that  was 
in  solution  in  the  sewage  by  eighty  per  cent.  This  occurred  in 
winter,  when  frost  was  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  filters,  and  the 
effluents  were  at  the  temperature  of  about  36°  F. 

When  the  frost  had  been  melted  in  the  tanks  in  the  field,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  effluent  in  each  had  reached  39°  or  40°, 
nitrification  began  in  all  of  the  fflters  composed  of  sand.  The 
sum  of  ammonias,  however,  did  not  immediately  decrease;  in 
fact,  it  generally  increased  in  the  coarser  sands  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  and  in  the  finest  sand  for  two  months.  The  time  when  it 
began  to  decrease,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  filter  reached 
a  condition  of  estabHshed  purification,  appears  to  depend  upon 
the  freedom  with  which  air  can  penetrate  the  filter,  and  upon  the 
amount  of  organic  impurity  that  has  been  stored  in  the  fflter. 

Effect  on  Filtration  of  Exclusion  of  Air 

The  essential  difference  between  intermittent  ffltration  and  con- 
tinuous filtration  of  sewage  is,  that  in  the  former  air  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  fflter  during  the  intermissions,  and  in  the  latter  air  is 
excluded  from  the  filter. 

If  from  any  cause  the  surface  becomes  impervious  to  air,  by  the 
material  becoming  so  retentive  of  water  that  no  air  can  enter  be- 
tween the  appKcations  of  sewage,  the  result  is  similar  to  that  when 
ffltration  is  continuous;  no  nitrification  takes  place,  and  the 
effluent  gradually  grows  to  contain  as  much  organic  matter  as  the 
sewage.  This  was  the  result  with  the  garden  soil  of  Tank  No.  5 
throughout  the  two  years.  It  was  the  case  for  a  short  time  with 
Tank  No.  7,  covered  with  garden  soil,  which,  in  June,  1888,  was 
receiving  17,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  acre  per  day.  This  proved 
to  be  more  than  would  readily  enter;  and  a  green  layer  of  organic 
matter  formed  on  the  surface,  that  was  so  retentive  of  water  that 


178  STATE  SANITATION 

no  air  could  enter  the  filter;  and  the  result  is  shown  upon  the 
diagram  in  the  rapid  decrease  in  the  nitrates,  until  nitrification 
ceased  on  July  10,  and  so  continued  till  August  2,  in  which  time 
the  sum  of  ammonias  increased  from  o.io  parts  to  0.44  parts. 
This  condition  was  changed  by  removing,  on  July  25,  one-half 
inch  in  depth  of  the  surface,  allowing  the  air  to  enter,  and 
causing  the  nitrates  to  increase  in  eleven  days  from  0.003  pa-rts 
to  1. 100  parts;  but  purification  by  nitrification  was  not  well 
estabHshed  until  the  quantity  applied  was  reduced  to  14,000 
gallons  per  acre  per  day.  With  9,000  gallons  daily  per  acre  it  was 
continued  very  satisfactorily  for  eight  months. 

Effect  of  Continuous  Filtration  on  Bacteria 

The  effect  upon  the  number  of  bacteria  in  changing  from  inter- 
mittent to  continuous  filtration  was,  in  No.  12,  to  increase  and 
then  to  decrease  it.  In  June,  1888,  the  number  was  166.  Through 
July,  with  a  glass  trap  on  the  outlet,  the  number  averaged  891. 
On  July  27,  the  tank  was  filled  with  sewage,  and  continuous  filtra- 
tion commenced.  In  a  week  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a  cubic 
centimeter  of  the  efiiuent  was  55,900,  in  three  weeks  it  had  gradu- 
ally decreased  to  3,540,  and  in  two  weeks  more  it  was  only  64.  In 
the  next  two  months,  while  continuous  filtration  continued  and 
nitrification  ceased,  the  number  averaged  less  than  100.  During 
this  time  there  was  no  nitrification  to  kill  them,  but  they  were 
unable  to  survive  the  long  passage  of  three  weeks  through  the 
sand  without  oxygen. 

Upon  drawing  sewage  out  of  the  tank  on  November  28,  and 
resuming  intermittent  filtration,  the  number  of  bacteria,  when  the 
first  hquid  from  the  top  —  being  one  week  on  its  passage  — 
reached  the  outlet,  was  10,416,  and  in  two  days  the  number  fell 
off  to  34;  and  in  the  next  three  weeks,  while  the  nitrates  were 
increasing  from  0.1200  to  1.0200  parts,  the  number  averaged  82. 

When  nitrification  ceased  in  No.  7,  due  to  the  surface  becoming 
impervious  to  air,  the  quantity  of  water  that  could  enter  was  so 
smaU  that  about  two  months  were  required  to  pass  through  the 
sand;  and  so  long  a  passage  without  air  was  undoubtedly  the 
cause  of  the  number  of  bacteria  being  very  small,  although  there 
was  no  nitrification. 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  179 

General  Effect  of  Intermittent  Filtration  of 

Sewage  upon  the  Bacteria  which  are 

Growing  in  it 

The  sewage  pumped  from  the  sewer  at  the  Experiment  Station 
generally  contained  about  700,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 
If  it  was  allowed  to  stand  in  an  open  vessel,  the  number  would 
increase  for  a  few  days  to  three  or  four  times  the  original  number, 
and  then  generally  decrease  to  a  fraction  of  the  original  number. 

When  sewage  was  first  appKed  to  the  sand  filters,  the  number  of 
bacteria  found  in  the  effluents,  while  the  sewage  was  minghng 
with  water  that  was  previously  in  the  sand,  rose  from  the  small 
numbers  that  had  been  in  the  water  to  appreciable  percentages  of 
the  number  that  was  in  the  sewage,  and,  in  the  case  of  Tank 
No.  II,  exceeded  that  number. 

The  maximum  percentages  of  the  number  in  the  sewage  found 
in  the  effluents  at  such  times  were  as  foUows:  No.  i,  thirty-one 
per  cent;  No.  12,  eighty- three  per  cent;  No.  13,  forty  per  cent; 
No.  14,  twenty-six  per  cent;  No.  6,  five  per  cent;  No.  11,  four 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  per  cent;  No.  2,  fourteen  per  cent; 
No.  4,  five  per  cent;  No.  7,  five  per  cent. 

The  sand  of  No.  11  had  been  heated,  and  the  water  of  both 
No.  II  and  No.  12  had  been  boiled  and  put  into  the  sand  when 
hot;  and,  though  the  heating  of  the  sand  and  the  boiling  of  the 
water  probably  sterilized  each  for  the  time,  these  processes  may 
have  prepared  the  organic  matter  in  each  to  be  better  food  for  the 
bacteria  afterwards  brought  in  by  the  sewage,  and  caused  the 
number  to  be  greater  than  would  have  ordinarily  existed.  Omit- 
ting these  in  the  discussion  until  we  have  opportunity  to  give 
them  especial  attention,  the  coarse  sands,  Hke  No.  i,  allowed 
from  twenty-six  to  forty  per  cent  of  the  bacteria  to  pass  through; 
the  mixed  sand  of  No.  6  allowed  five  per  cent  to  pass;  the  fine 
sand  of  No.  2  allowed  fourteen  per  cent;  and  the  stiU  finer  sand 
of  No.  4,  and  the  soil-covered  sand  of  No.  7  allowed  five  per  cent 
to  pass  through.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  five  feet  in  depth  of 
soil  in  No.  5,  or  the  same  depth  of  peat  in  No.  3,  allowed  any  to 
pass  through. 


i8o  STATE  SANITATION 

These  results  show  us  that  it  is  mechanically  possible  for 
bacteria  to  be  carried  through  the  several  filters  of  sand  in  large 
numbers,  and  with  varying  percentages  of  loss;  and  that,  when 
the  number  brought  through  is  far  below  the  percentages  above 
given,  we  must  conclude  that  some  other  condition,  not  merely 
mechanical,  is  unfavorable  to  their  passage. 

From  this  summary  (not  given  here)  we  find  from  the  average 
results  of  the  filters,  —  omitting  those  which  have  exceptional 
conditions,  —  that,  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  from 
five  to  forty  per  cent  of  the  bacteria  applied  lived  to  get  through 
the  filters,  the  smaller  number  being  through  fine  material  and  the 
larger  number  being  through  coarse  sand,  the  average  amounting 
to  eighteen  per  cent.  This  was  before  the  Hquid  in  the  tank  was 
all  from  sewage;  and,  being  a  condition  that  is  never  found  after 
a  filter  has  been  used  some  months  for  sewage,  it  is  of  interest  only 
in  showing  that  it  is  mechanically  possible  for  bacteria  to  pass 
through  these  matrials,  under  favorable  conditions,  with  a  loss  of 
from  sixty  to  ninety-five  per  cent. 

The  minimum  number  found  on  a  single  day,  when  the  condi- 
tions, without  nitrification,  were  exceptionally  unfavorable,  — 
given  in  the  third  column,  and  averaging  but  0.042  of  one  per 
cent,  —  are  significant,  but  may  be  passed  to  consider  the  more 
general  condition  given  in  the  fourth  column  of  the  average  in  the 
large  tanks  numbered  from  i  to  7,  for  two  months  or  more,  and 
in  the  others  for  a  much  shorter  time,  when  there  was  a  marked 
reduction  in  the  organic  matter  by  the  burning  up  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  but  resulting  in  only  a  partial  purification  with  no  nitrifi- 
cation. At  this  time  there  survived  the  passage  from  0.08  of  one 
per  cent  to  five  per  cent,  averaging  i  .05  per  cent  of  the  number  in 
the  sewage. 

We  must,  from  the  result,  regard  the  conditions  at  this  time  as 
unfavorable  to  the  passage  of  bacteria  through  the  sands  far 
beyond  that  due  to  mechanical  obstruction.  Nearly  ninety-nine 
per  cent  died  where  there  was  apparently  an  abundance  of  food, 
and  no  destruction  by  the  formation  of  nitric  acid  or  nitrates. 
Carbonic  acid  was  formed ;  and  probably  the  oxygen  was  in  some 
part  of  the  passage  all  used  up  in  combining  with  the  carbon. 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  i8i 

We  may  suppose  that  their  general  destruction  at  this  time, 
and  in  the  previous  time  soon  after  sewage  took  possession  of  the 
tank,  was  due  to  the  character  of  the  food  met  with,  and  to  being 
deprived  of  oxygen. 

Bacteria  Decrease  with  Completeness  of  Nitrification 
Independently  of  the  Sum  of  Ammonias 

We  have  seen  that  it  is  mechanically  possible  for  from  five  to 
forty  per  cent,  averaging  eighteen  per  cent,  of  the  number  of 
bacteria  applied  in  the  sewage  to  pass  through  the  several  filters ; 
but  that,  after  intermittent  filtration  is  established  and  no 
nitrification  is  taking  place,  —  although  there  is  a  destruction  of 
organic  matter  by  the  burning  up  of  some  of  the  carbonaceous 
matter,  —  the  number  of  bacteria  that  survived  the  passage  was 
from  0.08  of  one  per  cent  to  five  per  cent,  averaging  1.05  per  cent. 
In  this  condition  of  partial  purification  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the 
bacteria  are  destroyed;  but,  when  nitrification  begins,  the  num- 
ber surviving  the  passage  suddenly  decreases  to  only  0.08  of  one 
per  cent,  and  a  still  further  decrease  to  about  0.03  of  one  per  cent 
when  nitrification  becomes  complete. 

During  each  of  these  stages  there  appears  to  be  no  lack  of  food 
for  bacteria;  for  both  free  and  albuminoid  ammonia  are  abundant, 
their  sum  averaging  from  0.2  to  0.4  parts  per  100,000  of  the 
effluent. 

In  the  stages  which  follow,  a  decrease  in  the  sum  of  ammonias  is 
not  accompanied  with  a  further  decrease  in  the  number  of  bac- 
teria. In  the  seventh  column  we  have  a  decrease  in  the  sum  of 
ammonias,  from  0.270  parts  to  0.018  parts,  accompanying  a 
decrease  in  nitrates  from  2.42  parts  to  0.90  parts,  but  a  much 
higher  average  condition  of  nitrates  than  in  the  previous  columns; 
but  the  number  of  bacteria  is  higher,  and,  when  the  sum  of  am- 
monias is  maintained  at  the  very  small  amount  of  0.0140  parts,  or 
about  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  sum  of  ammonias  of  the 
sewage,  the  average  percentage  of  the  number  of  bacteria  con- 
tinues about  the  same;  viz.,  0.07  and  0.05  of  one  per  cent  of  the 
number  in  the  sewage. 


1 82  STATE  SANITATION 

We  do  not  here  find  that  the  number  of  bacteria,  after  nitrifica- 
tion begins,  decreases  with  the  decrease  in  the  sum  of  the  am- 
monias; but  it  does  decrease  with  the  completeness  of  the 
nitrification. 

Probable  Destruction  of  Bacteria  by  Oxidation 

Although  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  effiuent  was  relatively 
small,  being  but  one  per  cent  of  the  number  in  the  sewage,  when 
carbonic  acid  was  formed  in  the  burning  up  of  carbon  in  organic 
matter,  and  the  number  was  decreasing  as  the  process  continued, 
yet  it  was  very  much  smaller,  being  from  0.03  to  0.07  of  one  per 
cent  when  nitric  acid  was  formed  in  the  burning  up  of  nitrogen 
derived  from  organic  matter  of  the  sewage;  and  the  least  number 
was  when  this  oxidation  of  nitrogen  was  most  complete.  It  would 
follow,  in  a  permanently  estabhshed  condition  of  nitrification, 
that,  when  nitrification  was  most  complete,  the  amount  of  the 
ammonias  in  the  effluent  would  be  the  least;  but  in  the  varying 
condition  of  the  sewage  applied,  and  the  storing  and  subsequent 
giving  off  of  ammonias  from  the  sand,  we  have  sometimes  found 
the  highest  nitrification  and  the  smallest  number  of  bacteria 
when  there  was  a  large  supply  of  the  ammonias  in  the  effluent. 
This  would  indicate  that  the  most  complete  destruction  of  bac- 
teria was  not  due  to  a  failure  of  food,  so  far  as  that  may  be  sup- 
plied by  the  free  or  albuminoid  ammonia  of  these  effluents,  but 
was  rather  due  to  the  process  of  the  formation  of  nitrates,  —  the 
burning  process.  We  have  thought  that  their  destruction  might 
be  due  to  being  deprived  of  oxygen  that  was  used  in  the  oxidation 
of  other  organic  matter;  but  it  may  be  due  to  their  own  oxidation, 
—  to  their  being  burned. 

The  Eefltjents  prom  the  Filters  not  Adapted  to 
Support  Bacteria 

We  have  found  that,  if  food  that  has  been  proved  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  be  applied  to  one  of  these  filters, 
when  the  sewage  ordinarily  applied  is  being  very  completely  nitri- 
fied, the  number  of  bacteria  will  for  a  time  be  greatly  increased, 
and  continue  high  until  this  food  has  passed  out  or  is  becoming 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  183 

nitrified;  from  which  we  may  conclude  that  the  free  and  albu- 
minoid ammonias,  —  although  quite  high  in  an  effluent,  —  when 
they  are  the  residue  of  a  much  larger  amount  that  has  been 
burned,  indicate  substances  that  are  much  less  able  to  support 
bacterial  life  than  fresh  organic  substances,  that  would  give  the 
same  amount  of  free  and  albuminoid  ammonia  in  a  solution. 

Examinations  have  been  made  of  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the 
effluent  from  Tanks  No.  i,  No.  2,  No.  4  and  No.  6,  from  hour  to 
hour,  while  filling  and  after  standing  two  or  three  days  in  the 
measuring  basins,  to  determine  whether  bacteria  would  increase 
in  numbers  in  these  effluents,  when  exposed  to  the  air  under  cir- 
cumstances probably  more  favorable  to  their  growth  than  if 
turned  into  a  drinking-water  stream. 

In  some  cases  there  was  an  increase  in  numbers  on  standing, 
and  in  others  a  decrease ;  but  in  no  case  did  the  growth  of  bacteria 
in  these  effluents  indicate  that  the  remaining  organic  matter  was 
well  adapted  to  support  bacteria. 

May  the  Filtered  Effluent  be  Used  for  Dejnking  ? 

We  now  come  to  the  important  question  of  the  character,  as 
regards  healthfulness  of  the  effluents  obtained  by  filtering  sewage 
intermittently  through  five  feet  in  depth  of  sand,  after  the  sand 
has  filtered  sewage  for  a  year  or  more  without  being  cleaned. 

We  have  found  that  the  sum  of  ammonias,  which  have  been 
taken  to  indicate  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter,  has 
been  reduced  to  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  those  in  the 
sewage,  and  is  less  than  the  sum  of  ammonias  of  most  of  the  pubhc 
drinking-water  suppHes  of  the  state. 

The  chlorine  and  nitrates  are  higher  than  in  the  pubHc  drinking 
waters.  They  indicate  in  these  effluents,  as  their  excess  above  the 
normal  does  in  the  drinking  waters,  that  the  water  which  contains 
them  came  from  sewage;  but,  in  the  absence  of  the  ammonias, 
they  indicate  that,  though  the  water  came  from  sewage,  the 
organic  impurities  have  been  destroyed,  and  these  are  merely 
mineral  constituents  which  remain  after  that  destruction.  They 
are  principally  common  salt  and  saltpetre,  which,  in  the  quantities 
found  in  any  of  the  effluents,  are  regarded  as  entirely  harmless. 


1 84  STATE  SANITATION 

Judging  by  the  chemical  analyses,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
effluents  known,  or  even  suspected  by  chemists,  to  be  harmful. 

Although  nearly  all  of  the  bacteria  that  were  in  the  sewage  did 
not  live  to  pass  through  the  filters,  there  have  been  found  in  the 
effluents  from  filters  of  coarse  sand  more  bacteria  than  are  found 
in  the  public  drinking  supplies,  and  some  of  these  evidently  come 
from  the  sewage;  and,  until  we  learn  that  disease-producing 
bacteria  are  not  among  those  that  come  through,  we  must  assume 
that  they  may  be  among  them;  and,  although  reduced  in  num- 
bers to  such  an  extent  that  they  may  do  no  harm,  we  yet  know 
that  bacteria  in  general  increase  with  enormous  rapidity  when 
under  favorable  conditions,  and  we  do  not  yet  know  enough  to 
allow  us  to  assume  that  the  very  small  number  of  one  or  two  in  a 
thousand  of  the  number  in  the  sewage  that  come  through  may 
not  increase  in  the  human  body  or  under  other  conditions  to  such 
numbers  as  to  be  harmful. 

From  this  cause  we  are  not  able  to  assume  that  the  effluent 
from  the  coarse  sand  filters  five  feet  in  depth  is  suitable  for 
drinking  water. 

The  effluent  from  the  extremely  fine  sand  filter.  No.  4,  and  that 
from  the  soil-covered  filter,  No.  7,  and  a  part  of  the  time  from  the 
fine  sand.  No.  2,  we  have  strong  ground  for  concluding  contained 
no  bacteria  from  the  sewage.  The  numbers  that  were  found  in  the 
effluents  were  smaller  than  are  usually  found  in  public  drinking 
supplies;  and  we  have  good  reason  for  concluding  that  they  all 
grew  in  the  gravel  and  underdrains  beneath  the  filters.  If  these 
conclusions  are  correct,  there  is  no  known  reason  why  these 
effluents  may  not  be  used  with  safety  for  drinking. 

The  effluent  from  No.  2  has  been  frequently  used  for  drinking 
by  a  number  of  people,  without  any  noticeable  effect;  but  none 
of  them  have  been  used  continuously  by  a  large  number  suffi- 
ciently to  prove  their  safety.  In  the  absence  of  such  positive 
evidence,  we  have  made  the  following  comparisons. 

The  city  of  Lawrence  is  provided  with  a  public  water  supply 
from  the  river;  but  there  are  a  dozen  or  more  wells  scattered 
about  the  city,  on  the  sides  of  streets,  that  have  been  used  for 
many  years  for  watering  horses,  and  are  still  used  for  this  pur- 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE 


185 


pose,  or  for  supplying  drinking  water  to  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  particularly  are  used  by  the  pubHc  for  a  cool  draught 
of  water  in  the  summer,  when  it  is  much  more  refreshing  than  the 
city  reservoir  water. 

The  water  from  ten  of  these  wells  has  been  analyzed  and  ex- 
amined for  bacteria,  and  the  results  obtained  from  seven  of  them 
are  arranged  below,  with  the  average  result  obtained  by  analysis 
of  the  filtered  sewage  from  six  of  our  filters,  covering  from  two  to 
eight  months,  after  most  of  them  had  been  in  use  a  year  or  more. 

Table  37 

COMPAMSON   OF   THE   EfFLXIENT  FROM   SEVERAL  OF  THE   FILTERS   FILTERING 

Sewage,  with  Water  from  Wells  in  Common  Use 


Ammonias 

Chlo- 
rine 

Nitrogen  as 

Bacteria 
Per 

Average  Effluent  from 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Sum 

Ni- 
trates 

Ni- 
trites 

Cubic 
Centi- 
meter 

Tank  No.  i,  for  two  months 

•0313 

.0272 

•0585 

4-83 

1.78 

.0008 

549 

Well  water,  Atlantic  Street 

.1410 

•oiSS 

•1565 

8.08 

2-37 

.0024 

4,370 

Tank  No.  13,  for  six  months 

.0011 

.0105 

.0116 

7.28 

1. 25 

.0004 

76 

Well  water,  Hampshire  Street 

.0078 

.0118 

.0196 

7-51 

2.00 

.0007 

128 

Tank  No.  6,  for  three  months 

.0036 

.0104 

.0140 

4.98 

1.66 

.0002 

678 

Well  water,  Andover  Street 

.0184 

.0046 

.0230 

2.79 

1.50 

.0018 

46 

Tank  No.  6,  for  six  months 

.0014 

.0074 

.0088 

4-51 

I. II 

.0001 

319 

Well  water.  Mechanic  Street 

.0016 

.0076 

.0092 

5-29 

4.20 

.0000 

240 

Tank  No.  4,  for  two  months 

.0025 

.0108 

•0133 

3-72 

0.75 

.0002 

20 

Well  water,  Salem  Street 

.0070 

.0086 

.0156 

7.67 

1.40 

.0014 

447 

Tank  No.  2,  for  four  months 

.0007 

.0065 

.0072 

3-98 

0.71 

.0000 

17 

Well  water,  Lowell  Street   .  . . 

.0012 

.0070 

.0082 

7.11 

2.10 

.0000 

27 

Tank  No.  7,  for  eight  months 

.0014 

.0063 

.0077 

4.04 

1.06 

.0000 

7 

Well  water,  Haverhill  Street 

.0022 

.0050 

.0072 

2.44 

0-55 

.0016 

344 

Here  we  find,  for  each  of  the  filters  filtering  sewage,  a  well  the 
water  of  which  is  used  for  drinking  by  many  people,  but  is  in  fact 
sewage  not  so  well  purified  as  the  effluent  from  the  filter  with 


1 86  STATE  SANITATION 

which  it  is  associated.  This  is  not  presented  to  show  that  the 
effluent  from  the  filters  is  good  for  drinking,  for  we  have  no  reason 
to  so  regard  those  at  least  in  the  upper  half  of  the  table,  and  we 
should  without  hesitation  pronounce  the  well  waters  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  table  as  unsafe  to  drink;  but  we  present  this  compari- 
son to  show  that  waters  in  every  way  as  impure  and  as  certainly 
derived  from  sewage  as  the  effluents  from  the  several  sewage 
fflters  are  being  used  daily,  and  have  been  used  for  years  by 
multitudes  of  people,  without  their  knowing  that  they  were 
harmed  by  them. 

Every  one  of  these  wells  should  be  regarded  as  unsafe,  some  of 
them  dangerous  in  their  present  condition,  and  others  unsafe 
because  of  what  they  may  change  to  from  day  to  day. 

If  these  wells  contained  unpolluted  water,  the  chlorine  would  be 
about  0.36,  while  it  is  from  seven  to  twenty- two  times  this 
amount;  the  nitrates  would  be  about  o.oi  or  0.02,  while  they  are 
from  0.55  to  4.20. 

The  latter  show  that  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter,  gen- 
erally more  than  there  is  in  sewage  in  a  sewer,  has  been  burned 
out  of  these  waters,  and  the  high  chlorines  show  that  this  organic 
matter  was  of  the  same  character  as  that  in  sewage.  From  the 
amounts  in  most  of  these  well  waters  we  must  conclude  that  their 
previous  condition  was  worse  —  that  is,  more  polluted  —  than 
ordinary  sewage  in  sewers,  and  that  on  its  way  to  some  of  the  wells 
it  has  by  intermittent  filtration  through  the  ground  been  purified 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  may  not  in  their  present  condition  be 
harmful;  and,  where  the  numbers  of  bacteria  are  continually 
small  and  the  ammonias  low,  they  probably  are  not  harmful;  but, 
where  the  numbers  of  bacteria  are  large  and  the  ammonias  are 
large,  although  the  waters  have  been  previously  much  worse  than 
at  present,  and  have  to  a  considerable  degree  been  purified,  their 
present  condition  indicates  that  the  material  through  which  they 
have  filtered  has  not  been  able  to  exclude  bacteria  nor  to  burn  up 
aU  of  the  food  they  live  on;  hence,  if  disease  germs  get  into  their 
source,  some  of  them  will  probably  get  into  these  wells.  Such  of 
the  wells  as  are  included  in  this  latter  class  should  be  filled  with 
earth,  and  never  used  again.    Others,  if  examined  from  time  to 


FILTRATION  OF  SEWAGE  187 

time,  and  always  found  with  low  ammonias  and  small  number  of 
bacteria,  would  probably  be  harmless;  and  we  should  have  the 
same  ground  for  concluding  that  the  effluent  from  sewage  at  those 
fine  sand  or  soil-covered  filters  through  which  no  bacteria  come 
from  the  sewage  would  also  be  harmless  for  drinking. 

These  comparisons  have  been  made,  not  to  advise  drinking  any 
of  the  well  waters  that  have  been  cited,  nor  any  of  the  effluents 
from  the  sewage  filters,  but  to  show  that,  as  people  are  drinking 
such  waters  with  impunity,  with  which  the  effluents  from  the 
filters  of  fine  sand  compare  favorably  in  every  respect,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  effluents  from  sewage  ffltration  through  such 
fflters  can  be  turned  into  a  drinking-water  stream,  where  they  will 
be  much  diluted,  without  risk  of  injury  to  those  who  drink  from  it. 


XIX 

THE  CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  OF  SEWAGE 

By  Allen  Hazen 

QThis  abstract  contains  only  the  introduction  and  the  conclusions  of  the  report. 
The  experimental  details  consist  largely  of  tables  and  diagrams.  Part  II,  Report  on 
Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  737.  —  G.  C.  W.~\ 

Sewage,  as  it  is  found  in  our  city  sewers,  contains  a  great 
variety  of  substances.  Among  its  principal  ingredients  are  urine 
and  faeces,  together  with  wasted  food  and  wash  water.  This  is 
diluted  with  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  in  rainy  weather,  there 
is  in  addition  a  large  amount  of  street  washings,  which  consist  of 
sand  from  pavements,  and  organic  refuse  of  various  kinds.  With 
the  separate  system  of  sewerage,  the  street  washings  and  rain 
water  would  be  excluded,  so  that  all  the  sewage  would  be  like 
that  which  is  now  found  in  dry  weather. 

Of  this  mixed  sewage,  a  portion,  the  inorganic  matter,  consist- 
ing of  sand  and  various  salts,  is,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view, 
quite  harmless.  Another  portion,  the  organic  matter,  furnishes 
abundant  food  for  bacteria,  always  present  in  great  numbers.  To 
remove  this  organic  portion  is  the  great  problem  in  purification. 

If  sewage  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours,  a  portion  of  the 
organic  matter  will  settle  out;  but  the  greater  part  is  either  too 
finely  divided  to  separate  in  a  moderate  length  of  time,  or  is  in 
solution.  By  adding  certain  chemicals  to  the  sewage,  an  inor- 
ganic precipitate  is  formed,  which  settles  rapidly,  and  carries 
with  it  nearly  all  of  the  suspended  matter,  and  also  a  portion  of  the 
dissolved  matter.  This  is  the  chemical  precipitation  of  sewage. 
Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  chemistry  of  the  process  which 
makes  insoluble  a  portion  of  the  dissolved  organic  matter,  but  it  is 
probably  similar  to  the  use  of  mordants  in  dyeing  for  fixing 
soluble  colors. 

The  substances  best  adapted  and  most  commonly  used  for 
chemical  precipitation  are  lime,  and  the  salts  of  aluminum  and 
iron. 

188 


CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  OF  SEWAGE  189 

Lime,  containing  seventy  per  cent  available  calcium  oxide,  can 
be  bought  for  $9.00  a  ton.  Ferrous  sulphate  or  copperas,  contain- 
ing twenty-six  per  cent  of  ferrous  oxide,  costs  $10.00  a  ton.  Alumi- 
num sulphate  or  crude  alum,  containing  fourteen  per  cent  of 
alumina,  costs  $25.00  a  ton.  A  ferric  salt  can  be  made  by  oxidiz- 
ing copperas  with  chlorine,  or  with  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate 
of  soda. 

The  approximate  cost  of  these  oxides  in  solution  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Aluminum  oxide 9  cents  per  poimd 

Ferric  oxide 3  cents  per  pound 

Ferrous  oxide 2  cents  per  pound 

Calcium  oxide f  of  a  cent  per  pound 

Using  these  figures,  the  cost  of  chemicals  has  been  calculated  for 
the  different  experiments.  One  hundred  gallons  of  sewage  daily 
for  each  inhabitant  is  assumed  in  calculating  the  annual  cost. 

It  seems  altogether  probable,  considering  the  cheapness  of  the 
materials  from  which  they  are  prepared,  that  the  cost  of  both 
crude  alum  and  ferric  sulphate,  or  the  corresponding  chlorides, 
might  be  materially  decreased  from  the  prices  given,  in  case  there 
should  be  a  considerable  demand  for  them.  Lime  and  copperas 
have  already  a  large  sale,  and  could  not  probably  be  obtained  at 
lower  prices  by  an  increased  consumption. 

I  have  endeavored,  in  the  following-described  experiments,  to 
determine,  first,  the  best  method  of  using  each  chemical  sub- 
stance, and  to  estabHsh,  if  possible,  some  relation  between  the 
composition  of  the  sewage  and  the  amount  of  precipitant  which 
will  give  the  best  result,  or  as  good  a  result  as  a  larger  quantity; 
and,  second,  to  compare  the  effect  of  equal  values  of  the  different 
precipitants  upon  the  same  sewage,  after  finding,  by  the  first 
experiments,  how  to  use  each  with  the  greatest  advantage.  The 
experiments  also  give  an  idea  of  the  amount  of  matter  which 
can  be  removed  by  chemical  precipitation  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. The  observations  have  been  confined  to  the  com- 
position of  the  sewage  and  of  the  effluent,  neglecting  the  sludge 
altogether. 


IQO  STATE  SANITATION 

Conclusions 

Using  lime  as  a  precipitant,  we  have  found  that  there  is  a  cer- 
tain definite  amount  of  lime,  depending  upon  the  composition  of 
the  sewage,  which  gives  a  better  result  than  less,  and  as  good 
or  a  better  result  than  more.  This  amount  of  lime  is  that  which 
exactly  suffices  to  form  normal  carbonates  with  all  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  sewage.  It  is  possible  in  a  few  minutes,  by  simple 
titration,  to  determine  approximately  the  amount  of  uncombined 
carbonic  acid  present  in  sewage,  and  how  much  lime  will  be  re- 
quired to  combine  with  it.  It  is  also  possible  to  determine  in  a 
similar  way,  after  mixing,  whether  enough  or  too  much  Hme  has 
been  added.  The  amount  of  lime  required  by  Lawrence  sewage 
averages  about  i,6oo  pounds  per  million  gallons. 

Ordinary  house  sewage  is  not  sufficiently  alkaHne  to  precipitate 
copperas,  and  a  small  amount  of  lime  must  be  added  to  obtain 
good  results.  The  quantity  of  lime  required  depends  both  upon 
the  composition  of  the  sewage  and  the  amount  of  copperas  used, 
and  can  be  calculated  from  titration  of  the  sewage.  Very  im- 
perfect results  are  obtained  with  too  little  lime,  and,  when  too 
much  is  used,  the  excess  is  wasted,  the  result  being  the  same  as 
with  a  smaller  quantity. 

After  mixing  the  sewage  with  both  copperas  and  lime,  if  enough 
or  too  much  Ume  has  been  used  the  mixture  will  color  phenol- 
phthalein  red,  while,  if  too  Httle  has  been  used,  no  color  will  be 
produced.  This  test  can  conveniently  be  used  by  people  having 
no  knowledge  of  chemistry,  and  affords  an  easy  and  very  accurate 
method  of  applying  enough  hme,  and  of  avoiding  a  useless  excess. 

Using  in  each  case  a  suitable  amount  of  lime,  the  more  cop- 
peras used  the  better  the  result;  but,  with  more  than  one-half  a 
ton  per  milUon  gallons,  the  improvement  does  not  compare  with 
the  increased  cost. 

Some  acid  sewages  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  iron  in 
solution,  and  in  these  cases  precipitation  by  lime  is  really  the 
rendering  available  of  the  copperas  already  in  the  sewage,  and  so 
is  properly  classed  as  an  iron  treatment  rather  than  a  lime  treat- 


CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  OF  SEWAGE  191 

ment.  In  this  case  the  reaction  with  phenolphthalein  shows  the 
presence  of  enough  lime. 

In  precipitation  by  ferric  sulphate  and  crude  alum,  the  addition 
of  Hme  was  found  unnecessary,  as  ordinary  sewage  contains 
enough  alkaH  to  decompose  these  salts.  Within  reasonable  Limits 
the  more  of  these  precipitants  used  the  better  is  the  result,  but 
with  very  large  quantities  the  improvement  does  not  compare 
with  the  increased  cost. 

Using  equal  values  of  the  different  precipitants,  apphed  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  for  each,  upon  the  same  sewage,  the 
best  results  were  obtained  with  ferric  sulphate.  Nearly  as  good 
results  were  obtained  with  copperas  and  lime  used  together,  while 
lime  and  alum  each  gave  somewhat  inferior  effluents.  The  range 
of  these  results  was,  however,  comparatively  narrow;  and  it  may 
be  that,  with  sewage  of  a  different  character,  or  with  variations 
in  the  prices  of  the  chemicals,  it  would  be  advantageous  to  use 
copperas  with  lime,  or  even  alum.  When  lime  is  used  there  is 
always  so  much  lime  left  in  solution  that  it  is  doubtful  if  its  use 
would  ever  be  found  satisfactory  except  in  case  of  acid  sewage. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  obtain  effluents  by  chemical  precipita- 
tion which  will  compare  in  organic  purity  with  those  obtained  by 
intermittent  jSltration  through  sand. 

It  is  possible  to  remove  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  or- 
ganic matter  of  sewage  by  precipitation,  with  a  proper  amount  of 
an  iron  or  aluminum  salt,  and  it  seems  probable  that,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  if  the  process  is  carried  out  with  the  same  care  as  is 
required  in  the  purification  of  sewage  by  intermittent  ffltration,  a 
result  may  be  obtained  which  will  effectually  prevent  a  public 
nuisance. 


XX 

MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS 

By  William  T.  Sedgwick 

[Historically  this  is  an  important  paper,  as  it  marked  the  introduction  of  a  new 
method  of  water  analysis,  —  namely  the  direct  application  of  the  microscope  to 
particles  strained  from  the  water.  Part  II,  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage, 
1890,  p.  796.  — G.  C.  W.] 

Micro-organisms:  Microscopical  and  Bacterial 
Introductory 

Organisms,  the  proper  subjects  of  biological  study,  as  they 
occur  in  drinking-water  or  in  sewage  may  be  either  animal  or 
vegetable,  either  aUve  or  dead.  They  are  generally  microscopic 
in  size,  and  belong,  therefore,  almost  without  exception,  to  the 
group  of  "  micro,"  i.  e.,  "  small,"  organisms.  The  term  micro- 
organisms is,  indeed,  often  enough  employed  in  a  much  narrower 
sense;  e.  g.,  as  a  synonym  for  the  bacteria,  or  for  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  bacteria  and  protozoa.  In  this  report,  however,  the 
term  micro-organisms  will  be  used  only  in  its  strictly  etymological 
or  most  general  and  indefinite,  significance,  comprehending  all 
small  organisms;  and,  for  greater  precision,  it  will  be  considered 
that  micro-organisms  include  all  organisms,  whether  plants  or 
animals,  invisible,  or  barely  visible,  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  micro-organisms  might  be  subdivided  into  "  animal 
forms  "  and  "  plant  forms,"  or  otherwise;  but  the  most  con- 
venient subdivision  for  practical  purposes  is  based  upon  the  two 
entirely  different  methods  by  which  they  are  detected,  counted 
and  studied. 

Of  all  the  micro-organisms  those  appear  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant which  are  the  smallest;  namely,  the  Schizomycetes  or 
bacteria.  These  are  so  small  that,  although  they  are  all  "  mi- 
croscopic," i.e.,  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  they  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily studied  by  the  microscope.    Consequently,  for  them  the; 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  193 

ordinary  methods  of  microscopical  study  have  to  be  abandoned, 
or  at  least  so  much  supplemented  by  other  methods  that  they 
become  entirely  secondary.  The  method  of  first  importance  in 
the  study  of  these  organisms  is  the  method  of  "  cultures,"  which 
consists,  essentially,  in  the  observation  of  the  organisms,  not  as 
individuals,  but  as  masses  or  colonies  of  individuals,  growing 
upon  certain  nutritive  substances.  The  forms  and  habits  of  these 
*'  colonies,"  together  with  their  effects  upon  such  substances  as 
beef -jelly,  bouillon,  boiled  potato,  milk,  etc.,  furnish  important 
data  which  enable  the  investigator  to  analyze,  enumerate  and 
differentiate  the  various  kinds  of  bacteria.  It  is  upon  this  simple 
method  of  "  cultures  "  — i.  e.,  the  naked-eye  observation  of  the 
organisms  collectively,  or  in  "  colonies,"  when  it  is  impossible, 
even  with  the  microscope,  to  study  them  effectively  as  individuals 
—  that  the  new  science  of  bacteriology,  created  by  the  genius  of 
Louis  Pasteur  and  of  Robert  Koch,  chiefly  rests. 

All  the  micro-organisms  excepting  the  bacteria  may  be  studied 
more  or  less  effectively,  without  the  use  of  the  method  just  de- 
scribed, by  means  of  the  microscope  and  such  apparatus  as  is 
familiar  to  microscopists.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  designate 
these  organisms  as  "  microscopical,"  and  lo  define  the  limits  of 
the  group  as  including  all  micro-organisms  excepting  the  bacteria. 
This  extremely  simple  arrangement  has  been  found  very  con- 
venient in  the  practical  work  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station, 
for  which  it  was  devised,  as  well  as  in  the  examinations  of  the 
public  water  supplies  of  Massachusetts,  both  under  the  auspices 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  It  is  exhibited  in  a  tabular  form 
as  follows :  — 

Microscopical  Organisms 

Not  requiring  special  "  cultures." 
Easily  studied  with  the  microscope. 
Microscopic  in  size,  or  slightly  larger. 
Plants  or  animals. 


Micro-organisms 
Organisms,   either  plants    or 
animals,  invisible  or  barely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye. 


Bacterial  Organisms. 

Requiring  special  cultures. 
Difficultly  studied  with  the  microscope. 
Microscopic  or  sub-microscopic  in  size. 
Plants. 


194  STATE  SANITATION 

Methods  of  Microscopical  Analysis 

Although  microscopical  analyses  (so-called)  of  water  or  sewage 
have  often  enough  been  undertaken,  the  methods  employed  have 
hitherto  been  so  imperfect  that  Uttle  importance  has  been  attached 
either  to  the  examinations  themselves  or  to  the  results. 

The  methods  used  have  generally  involved  the  direct  micro- 
scopical examinations  of  a  very  small  portion  of  the  water  itself, 
e.  g.,  of  one  drop  at  a  time  upon  a  slide;  or,  still  more  often,  of  a 
small  amount  of  the  sediment  deposited  by  the  water  upon  stand- 
ing for  some  hours  or  even  days.  Results  obtained  by  either  or 
both  of  these  methods  are  necessarily  only  roughly  qualitative, 
and,  though  often  interesting  and  sometimes  important,  could 
never  be  even  approximately  exact. 

A.  —  Methods  Employed  Hitherto 

The  first  systematic  microscopical  examination  of  water  from 
the  sanitary  standpoint  appears  to  have  been  made  by  Hassall,^ 
upon  the  river  Thames,  and  the  London  water  supply.  A  con- 
densed account  of  his  results  was  published  in  the  Lancet  for 
March,  1850.  A  more  complete  summary,  illustrated  by  wood- 
cuts, appeared  in  the  same  journal  in  185 1,  and  is  also  quoted  in  a 
volume  by  Hassall,  entitled,  "  Food  and  its  Adulterations " 
(London,  1855).  The  complete  account  was  also  published  as  an 
octavo  brochure,  with  colored  plates.^ 

It  does  not  appear  exactly  how  Hassall's  analyses  were  made, 
beyond  the  bare  facts  that  a  "  wine-bottle  "  full  of  the  water  was 
taken,  and  that,  "  on  allowing  the  heavier  particles  contained  in  a 
test  tube  filled  with  this  water  to  subside,  and  examining  a  drop  of 
the  sediment,"  other  data  were  obtained.  In  what  follows  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that,  until  1881,  microscopical  analyses  always 
included  the  bacterial  organisms.  Since  that  time  the  methods  of 
culture  introduced  by  Koch  have  tended  to  draw  attention  away 

^  Hassall,  Arthur  HiU.  "  Memoir  on  the  Organic  Analysis  or  Microscopic 
Examination  of  Water  Supplied  to  the  Inhabitants  of  London  and  the  Suburban 
Districts."    The  Lancet,  1850, 1,  230. 

2  "  A  Microscopic  Examination  of  the  Water  Supplied  to  the  Inhabitants  of 
London  and  the  Suburban  Districts."    London,  1850. 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  195 

from  the  microscopical,  and  to  fix  it  upon  the  bacterial,  organisms. 
Previous  to  1881,  however,  all  microscopical  analyses  included 
also,  as  far  as  possible,  the  bacterial  analyses. 

Hassall  begins  his  earliest  paper  as  follows:  "  In  the  chemical 
analyses  of  water  generally  given  we  find,  under  the  heading, 
'  Organic  Matter,'  the  word  '  traces ';  and  this,  in  the  majority  of 
instances,  is  the  only  information  we  obtain  from  the  chemist  in 
reference  to  the  most  important  contamination  to  which  water  is 
liable.  ...  In  the  course  of  this  investigation  it  will  become 
apparent  that  these  traces  are  not  inconsiderable  in  amount,  that 
they  are  complex  in  organization,  endowed  with  life,  and  in  many 
cases  possessed  of  action,  powers  of  locomotion,"  etc. 

A  year  later  Hassall  wrote:  "  We  have  dwelt  thus  long  and 
fully  on  the  organic  impurities  of  water,  because  of  their  extreme 
and  primary  importance;  for  it  is  on  these  that  the  deleterious 
properties  of  impure  water  for  the  most  part  depend.  Until  very 
recently  chemists  did  not  in  general  attach  sufficient  importance 
to  these  organic  contaminations;  and  in  most  of  their  analyses  we 
find  the  different  kinds  of  organic  matter,  vegetable  and  animal, 
living  and  dead,  all  lumped  together,  and  included  under  the  word 
'  traces.'  Indeed,  chemistry  is  but  ill  adapted  to  investigate  the 
nature  of  these  organic  matters;  it  gives  but  a  very  rough  esti- 
mate only  of  their  gross  amount,  and  does  not  discriminate,  as 
we  have  said,  the  animal  from  the  vegetable,  the  dead  from  the 
living;  and  tells  us  nothing  about  the  families,  genera  and  species 
to  which  the  numerous  living  productions  contained  in  impure 
waters  severally  belong,  or  of  their  habits  and  modes  of  life,  etc. 
This  inquiry  belongs  rather  to  the  naturalist,  the  physiologist  and 
the  microscopist;  and  to  ourselves  belongs  the  credit  of  having 
first  applied  the  resources  of  these,  extensively,  and  in  a  practical 
as  well  as  scientific  manner,  to  an  examination  of  the  actual  con- 
dition of  water  in  general,  and  particularly  the  state  of  that  now 
in  use  in  the  metropolis."  {Lancet,  185 1.  "Food  and  its  Adul- 
terations," p.  55.    London,  1855.) 

In  1865  Radlkofer  ^  pubHshed  an  account  of  a  microscopical 

^  Radlkofer,  Ludwig.  "  Mikroscopische  Untersuchiing  der  Organischen  Sub- 
stanzen  im  Brunnenwasser."    Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  I  (1865),  26. 


196  STATE  SANITATION 

investigation  of  the  organic  substances  found  in  certain  well 
waters  of  the  city  of  Munich.  No  statements  are  given  as  to  the 
method  employed;  but  it  would  appear  that  Radlkofer  examined 
the  water  and  the  mud  of  the  wells  simply  by  the  direct  observa- 
tion of  small  portions,  microscopically,  upon  a  slide. 

During  the  cholera  epidemics  of  1852  and  1866  the  wells  of 
Breslau,  in  Silesia,  were  regarded  with  suspicion.  Water  from 
some  of  the  worse  wells  was  officially  submitted  for  microscopical 
examination  to  Dr.  F.  Cohn,^  who  has  described  his  method  and 
discussed  his  results  in  what  is  perhaps  the  most  important  and 
suggestive  paper  hitherto  pubHshed  upon  the  microscopical,  as 
distinguished  from  the  bacterial,  analysis  of  water.  The  method 
employed  consisted,  however,  simply  in  the  direct  microscopical 
examination  of  a  few  drops  of  the  water,  and  of  the  sediment 
obtained  from  the  water  after  it  had  stood  for  some  hours,  or  even 
days. 

Cohn  writes  as  follows:  "  While  the  number  and  the  accuracy 
of  the  chemical  analyzes  of  water  is  steadily  increasing  year  by 
year,  the  number  of  microscopical  investigations  of  drinking 
water  is  still  extraordinarily  small.  ...  At  the  same  time,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  microscopical  examinations  of  drinking  waters, 
properly  conducted,  will  support  and  supplement  chemical 
examinations,  at  the  most  essential  points,  besides  throwing  Hght 
upon  certain  questions  which  the  reagents  of  the  chemist  are 
powerless  to  answer.  .  .  .  The  plants  Hving  in  water  remove 
from  it,  sometimes,  during  their  growth,  the  minutest  traces  of 
calcium  carbonate  which  may  be  detected  as  crystals  between 
their  filaments.  .  .  .  The  presence  of  traces  of  iron  in  water,  and 
sometimes  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  is  directly  discoverable  in 
certain  microscopic  algae.  But,  above  all,  microscopical  analysis 
gives  direct  and  positive  evidence  of  the  kinds  and  conditions  of 
the  nitrogenous  substances  present,  information  —  both  quali- 
tative and  quantitative  —  which  chemical  analysis  but  incom- 
pletely supplies."    Reference  will  be  made  to  other  portions  of 

1  Cohn,  F.  "  Ueber  den  Brunnenfaden  (Crenothrix  polyspora)  mit  Bemerkun- 
gen  liber  die  Mikroscopische  Analyse  des  Brunnenwassers."  Beitrage  zur  Biologic 
der  Pflanzen.    I  (I),  108.    Breslau,  1870. 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  197 

this  paper  hereafter,  especially  in  the  interpretation  of  results. 
As  a  key  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  previous  to  1870,  and  as 
a  memoir  of  the  first  importance,  it  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  sanitary  biologist. 

In  1879  Hirt,^  of  Breslau,  pubHshed  an  article  upon  the  prin- 
ciples and  the  method  of  the  microscopical  analysis  of  water,  in 
which  the  method  recommended  consists  in  (i)  the  direct  obser- 
vation of  numerous  samples  of  the  water  taken,  a  drop  at  a  time, 
while  the  sample  is  fresh:  twenty  to  thirty  drops  being  thus 
successively  mounted  and  scrutinized;  and  (2)  of  an  examination 
of  the  sediment  (if  any)  deposited  by  the  sample  on  standing  for 
two  to  six  days;  as  well  as  (3)  a  study  of  the  surface  pelhcle  (if 
any)  which  sometimes  forms  upon  the  sample  after  standing. 
Thirty  to  forty  preparations  of  the  sediment  and  pellicle  are 
recommended  to  be  made  from  each  sample,  and  these  must  be 
studied  till  the  investigator  has  clearly  made  out  their  character 
and  significance.  "  Although  I  must  frankly  admit  that  this 
method  of  the  microscopical  investigation  of  water  is  still  imper- 
fect; that  it  cannot  escape  among  numerous  objections,  especially 
this,  —  that  the  amount  of  water  or  sediment  actually  examined 
is  always  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  quantity  to  be  tested, 
—  still,  on  the  other  hand,  I  can  testify  that  serious  errors  do  not 
occur,  provided  one  follows  the  method  closely;  and,  further, 
that,  so  long  as  no  better  method  exists,  biologists  will  do  well  to 
employ  this  one  with  confidence."  Professor  Hirt  expressly  says 
that  this  was  the  method  employed  in  Cohn's  laboratory  at  that 
time  (1879),  and  it  appears  also  to  have  been  employed  by  Hirt 
and  others  in  a  systematic  study  of  the  river  Oder  and  the  water 
supply  of  Breslau,  between  1877  and  1881,  the  results  of  which 
have  been  pubHshed  in  an  important  paper  by  Hulwa.^  The 
interesting  tables  which  accompany  this  paper  give  the  micro- 
scopical results  side  by  side  with  the  chemical,  and  probably 
indicate  the  highest  point  reached  by  such  work  hitherto,  and 

1  Hirt,  Professor  Dr.  L.  "  Ueber  den  Principien  und  die  Methode  der  Mikro- 
scopischen  Untersuchung  des  Wassers."    Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  XV  (1879),  91. 

^  Hulwa,  Dr.  Franz.  "  Beitrage  zur  Schwemmkanalization  und  Wasser- 
Versorgung  der  Stadt  Breslau."  Centralblatt  fiir  aUegemeine  Gesundheitspflege, 
Erganzungshefte,  I,  89.    Bonn,  1885. 


198  STATE  SANITATION 

previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  more  exact  methods  of 
bacteriology,  in  1881. 

Macdonald's  "  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of 
Drinking  Water  "  ^  was  pubHshed  (in  the  first  edition)  in  1875. 
The  method  recommended  in  the  edition  of  1883  consists  in  the 
collection  of  the  sediment,  as  follows  (p.  4):  A  tall  glass  vessel 
is  "  filled  with  the  water  to  be  examined,  and  a  circular  disk  of 
glass,  resting  on  a  horizontal  loop  at  the  end  of  a  long  aluminum 
wire,  lowered  to  the  bottom,  when  the  whole  arrangement,  tightly- 
covered,  must  be  set  aside  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours,  as 
the  case  may  be.  At  the  end  of  the  specified  time,  the  water 
should  be  siphoned  off  with  a  piece  of  india-rubber  tubing,  so  as 
to  leave  only  a  thin  stratum  of  the  liquid  over  the  glass  disk.  This 
should  now  be  carefully  raised  and  laid  upon  blotting  paper,  to 
dry  its  under  surface  and  remove  the  surplus  moisture,  when  it 
may  be  at  once  transferred  to  the  microscope,  with  a  large  piece  of 
covering  glass  so  placed  upon  it  as  to  exclude  all  air-bubbles.  An 
ordinary  watch  glass  may  in  some  cases  be  substituted  for  the 
disk  alluded  to,  with  advantage.  .  .  .  Another  good  plan,  which 
is  perhaps  the  better  of  the  two,  is  to  siphon  off  the  water  until 
only  a  sufficient  quantity  remains  to  permit  the  sediment  to  be 
shaken  up  with  it  and  poured  into  a  tall  conical  glass,  from  which, 
after  standing  again  for  a  short  time,  portions  may  be  taken  up 
by  means  of  a  pipette,  and  placed  on  sHdes  for  examination." 

To  the  foregoing  outUne  of  the  Hterature  of  the  methods  of  the 
Microscopical  Analysis  of  Waters,  it  only  remains  to  add  that  the 
latest,  and,  without  doubt,  the  best,  summary  of  water  analysis 
hitherto  pubHshed  ("  Untersuchung  des  Wassers,"  Tiemann  und 
Gartner,  1889),  has  no  better  method  to  propose. 

Meanwhile,  the  development  of  special  methods  for  the  study  of 
the  bacteria,  and,  above  all,  the  introduction  by  Koch  of  the 
method  of  "  solid  cultures,"  have  simplified  the  problem  of  the 
microscopical  examination  of  water,  by  reheving  it  of  its  heaviest 
burden.  In  the  more  absorbing  pursuit  of  bacteriology  this  is  not 
yet  generally  recognized;  but  the  fact  is,  that,  by  the  removal  of 

^  Macdonald,  J.  D.  "A  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking 
Water,"  etc.    London,  1883. 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  199 

the  necessity  for  detecting  bacteria  by  the  microscope,  it  has 
become  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  enumerate  and  examine 
the  remaining  micro-organisms. 

B.  —  New  Methods:  With  a  Special  Account  of  the  Method 
or  Microscopical  Analysis  Employed  at  The  Lawrence 
Experiment  Station,  and  in  the  Monthly  Analyses  of  the 
Drinking  Waters  of  the  State 

In  the  establishment  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  the 
attempt  was  made  to  control  all  the  conditions.  The  engineering 
problems  were  well  in  hand,  the  chemical  problems  were  thor- 
oughly conceived,  the  bacterial  organisms  in  water  or  sewage 
could  be  counted  and  examined;  but,  at  the  outset,  the  micro- 
scopical organisms  could  not  be  compared,  because  there  was  no 
known  method  for  their  quantitative  study. 

The  paradoxical  condition  actually  existed  that  the  extremely 
minute  bacteria  (if  ahve)  could  be  easily  estimated  as  to  their 
numbers,  though  with  difficulty  as  to  their  kinds;  while  the 
infinitely  larger  metazoa  and  algae  could  indeed  be  arranged 
as  to  their  kinds,  .but  not  determined  as  to  their  numbers. 
The  microscopical  organisms  in  sewage  or  water  were  easily 
classified  as  "Yeast,"  "  Synedra,"  "  Paramoecium,"  etc.;  but, 
for  quantities,  expressions  such  as  "  abundant,"  "  scarce,"  "  very 
abundant,"  "  very  scarce,"  had  to  be  employed.  It  was  obvious, 
however,  that,  if  a  similar  systematic  and  thorough  study  was  to 
be  made  of  these  as  of  the  bacteria,  the  ammonia,  the  amounts  of 
Hquid  applied  and  recovered,  etc.,  some  quantitative  method 
must  be  devised. 

At  the  request  of  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  (Mr.  Mills), 
Mr.  G.  H.  Parker,  then  biologist  to  the  Board,  undertook  the 
examination  of  the  filtered  and  unfiltered  water.  The  object  of 
these  examinations  was  to  determine  whether  any  of  the  larger 
organisms,  algae, etc.,  which  were  known  to  occur  in  the  unfiltered 
water,  made  their  way  through  the  filters,  and  escaped  in  the 
filtered  water.  In  order  to  ascertain  whether  this  were  true  or 
not,  the  following  method  was  employed:  Cotton  cloth,  similar 
to  that  by  which  the  organisms  in  the  unfiltered  water  were  de- 


200  STATE  SANITATION 

tected,  was  firmly  tied  over  the  open  ends  of  the  escape-pipes 
from  the  filters,  and  the  filtered  water  allowed  to  strain  through 
this  cloth.  When  possible,  five  gallons  of  water  was  strained;  in 
many  instances,  owing  to  the  slowness  with  which  the  water 
traversed  the  filter,  this  amount  could  not  be  conveniently 
strained,  and  the  examination  was  then  necessarily  made  upon 
smaller  amounts.  The  cloth,  after  having  been  removed  from  the 
pipe,  was  inverted  (turned  inside  out)  over  the  lower  end  of  a 
glass  tube,  to  which  it  was  held  firmly,  while  the  worker  apphed 
the  cloth  to  an  ordinary  slide,  and  blew  smartly  through  the  tube 
from  above,  down  upon  the  sHde.  The  organisms  originally 
detained  upon  the  inside  of  the  cloth  are  now  upon  the  outside 
(after  the  inversion  of  it) ,  and  are  therefore  comparatively  easily 
removed  from  the  cloth  by  a  stream  (of  air)  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion to  that  which  lodged  them  upon  the  cloth.  A  drop  of  mois- 
ture usually  adheres,  or  may  be  added,  to  the  cloth,  and  aids  in 
the  detachment.  Once  upon  the  slide  in  a  drop  of  water,  the 
organisms  are  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible,  are  covered  by  a 
piece  of  thin  glass,  and  examined  with  the  microscope.  The 
number  of  gallons  thus  strained  being  known,  and  the  number  of 
organisms  observed  being  counted,  or  computed,  it  became 
possible  to  make  a  rough  approximation  to  the  number  of 
organisms  actually  present. 

A  modification  and  improvement  of  this  method,  which  was  de- 
vised by  Mr.  Parker,  and  was  known  to  the  investigators  of  the 
Board  as  the  "  cloth  method,"  was  employed  for  some  months  in 
the  microscopical  examinations  of  the  drinking  waters,  ice,  etc., 
of  the  state,  and  will  be  found  fully  described  in  Volume  I,  of  the 
present  Report,  pp.  581-582.  It  was  superseded  by  the  method 
now  to  be  described,  and  known  as  the  *'  sand  method,"  on 
June  I,  1889. 

In  the  autumn  of  1888,  Mr.  Alexander  L.  Kean,  at  that  time  a 
special  student  in  my  laboratory,  was  invited  to  make,  for  the 
Boston  Water  Works,  a  series  of  tests  of  the  efiiciency  of  certain 
sand  filters,  in  respect  to  the  removal  of  microscopical  organisms; 
and,  being  familiar  with  the  methods  of  the  bacteriological  ex- 
amination of  air  by  means  of  filters  of  sugar  and  of  sand,  he 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  20I 

determined  to  employ  a  modification  of  these  methods  in  his 
work  upon  water.  The  necessary  concentration  of  the  organisms 
in  the  water  is  effected  here,  as  in  the  case  of  air,  by  filtration 
through  sand,  supported,  in  this  case,  upon  a  brass  gauze  stop 
in  the  stem  of  a  funnel.  After  withdrawing  the  stop,  the  sand  is 
washed  down  into  a  watch  glass  by  one  cubic  centimeter  of  dis- 
tilled water,  delivered  from  a  pipette.  Upon  stirring  the  contents 
of  the  watch  glass,  the  sand  settles  to  the  bottom,  and  the  or- 
ganisms for  the  most  part  remain  in  the  supernatant  fluid.  A 
thousandth  part  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  this,  with  its  contained 
organisms,  is  then  transferred  to  a  shde  having  upon  its  surface  a 
concavity  containing,  when  covered,  one  cubic  millimeter.  The 
bottom  of  the  concavity  is  ruled  in  squares,  which  facihtate  the 
counting  or  computation  of  the  total  number  of  organisms  pres- 
ent. It  is  afterwards  only  necessary  to  multiply  by  one  thou- 
sand the  result  obtained  from  the  actual  count  of  the  organisms 
upon  the  slide,  to  obtain  the  number  present  in  the  entire  cubic 
centimeter,  i.  e.,  removed  by  filtration  from  the  sample  to  be  ex- 
amined. An  account  of  this  m.ethod  was  pubhshed  in  Science, 
of  February  15,  1889.^  To  Mr.  Kean,  therefore,  belongs  the  credit 
of  having  first  devised  and  employed  for  practical  purposes  a 
quantitative  method  for  the  microscopical  examination  of  water. 
If,  for  example,  100  cubic  centimeters  were  filtered,  and  yielded 
23  organisms  in  the  cubic  millimeter,  then  ^^  ^00°°°  =  230  is 
the  number  per  cubic  centimeter  in  the  original  sample. 

The  most  serious  defect  of  this  method  is  that  the  amount  actu- 
ally examined  is  too  small,  compelHng  the  use  of  a  large  factor  of 
multiphcation,  and  so  Hmiting  the  amount  actually  scrutinized 
that  important  organisms  may  easily  be  overlooked.  Since  it  is 
necessary  to  multiply  by  1,000  an  error  of  one  in  the  counting 
becomes  an  error  of  1,000  in  the  result;  or  of  10  per  cubic  centi- 
meter, if  100  cubic  centimeters  were  originally  taken.  Moreover, 
if  only  one  be  found  in  the  counting,  it  must  be  interpreted  to 
indicate  1,000  in  the  cubic  centimeter  in  the  watch  glass,  or  at 
least  10  per  cubic  centimeter  if  100  cubic  centimeters  were 
originally  taken.    It  is  impossible  to  get  a  number  between  o  and 

1  Kean,  A.  L.    "A  New  Method  for  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Water." 


202  STATE  SANITATION 

lo  per  cubic  centimeter,  unless  more  than  loo  cubic  centimeters 
be  filtered.  It  would  be  necessary  to  filter  as  much  as  a  liter,  in 
order  to  get  i  per  cubic  centimeter. 

Suspecting  that  this  method  yielded  too  high  results,  I  placed 
the  watch  glass  directly  under  the  microscope,  and  soon  became 
satisfied  that  it  did  not  contain  quite  as  large  numbers  as  were 
indicated  by  Kean's  method.  Moreover,  it  was  apparent  that,  if 
all  the  sand  and  its  contents  could  be  directly  observed  with  the 
microscope,  it  would  be  an  immense  advantage.  Accordingly,  I 
constructed  a  chamber  or  cell  suitable  for  receiving  the  sand  and 
the  organisms  held  back,  and  permitting  them  to  be  evenly  and 
thinly  distributed  over  the  surface.  In  reahty,  this  was  simply 
enlarging  the  cell  employed  in  the  previous  method,  for  here,  also, 
the  bottom  of  the  cell  was  ruled  in  squares;  yet  the  advantage 
was  very  great,  since  the  new  cell  or  plate  was  large  enough  to 
permit  the  examination  of  all  the  organisms  removed  by  filtration. 

The  cell,  or  counting  plate,  actually  fixed  upon  after  numerous 
trials,  is  50  millimeters  in  length  and  20  millimeters  in  width,  and 
contains,  therefore,  an  area  of  1,000  square  milHmeters.  It  is 
bounded  by  a  brass  border,  one  or  more  milHmeters  high  and  four 
or  five  milHmeters  wide.  This  rectangular  brass  border  is  firmly 
cemented  to  an  ordinary  glass  sHde  of  the  EngHsh  form,  upon 
which  originally  were  ruled  with  a  dividing  engine  1,000  squares, 
each  one  milHmeter  in  area.^  If  the  filtration  be  done  as  before, 
and  100  c.c.  of  water  be  taken  all  the  sand  and  the  organisms 
detained  by  it  are  washed  down  into  the  counting  plate  or  cell, 
with  enough  of  distilled  water  directed  from  a  wash-bottle  to 
ensure  the  covering  of  the  entire  bottom.  From  one  to  two  cubic, 
centimeters  are  usually  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  sand  and 
the  organisms  are  now  evenly  distributed  over  the  bottom  by  a 
needle  or  a  piece  of  wire,  care  being  taken  by  a  rapid  survey  to 
make  sure  of  the  evenness  of  distribution  and  are  then  examined 
directly  with  a  rather  low  power,  e.  g.,  the  BB  objective  and  2 
or  4  ocular  of  Zeiss.    It  is  now  theoretically  possible  to  count  the 

^  For  the  patient  and  skillful  elaboration  of  these  details,  and  for  the  actual  con- 
struction of  a  number  of  accurately  ruled  plates,  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  C.  A. 
Woodman,  formerly  a  student  in  my  laboratory. 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  203 

contents  of  every  square  millimeter  upon  the  plate;  in  practice, 
however,  this  is  neither  possible  nor  necessary.  From  the  start 
it  was  found  that  20  squares,  taken  from  representative  portions 
of  the  cell,  were  as  many  as  could  conveniently  be  counted,  though 
the  fact  that  the  entire  surface  can  be  rapidly  scrutinized  is  a 
conspicuous  advantage,  as  affording  a  check  upon  the  results 
obtained  from  the  20  squares.  The  total  number  of  organisms 
found  in  the  20  representative  squares  must,  obviously,  be 
multipKed  by  50  to  get  the  number  upon  the  entire  surface  of  the 
plate.  This  method,  therefore,  ordinarily  requires  the  use  of  50 
as  a  factor  of  multipHcation,  instead  of  1,000  as  in  the  previous 
method.  The  quantity  of  water  thus  really  examined  is  ■^\  of  the 
quantity  originally  taken  instead  of  xAxr-  Thus  if  100  cubic 
centimeters  be  filtered  Y/  =  2  cubic  centimeters  are  actually 
scrutinized  as  against  y/ffV  =  tV  cubic  centimeter  by  the  pre- 
vious method.  If  only  a  single  organism  were  found,  the  result 
would  be  I  X  50  =  '50  in  100  cubic  centimeters,  i.  e.,  0.5  organ- 
isms per  cubic  centimeter.  Obviously,  the  method  gives  no 
certain  means  of  detecting  quantities  between  o  and  0.5  organisms 
per  cubic  centimeter,  unless  more  than  100  cubic  centimeters  be 
concentrated.  The  possible  error  may  be  appreciated  in  another 
way.  Supposing  that  there  were  but  one  organism  in  the  entire 
100  cubic  centimeters  taken,  and  that  this  were  found  among  the 
20  squares,  the  result  would  be  50  organisms,  where  but  one  really 
existed.  If  it  were  not  found  in  the  20  squares  or  by  the  rapid 
scrutiny  of  the  entire  surface  the  result  would  be  zero,  and  this 
result  would,  clearly,  be  much  more  hkely  to  be  obtained  than  the 
other. 

After  the  method  had  been  thoroughly  tested  in  a  series  of 
experiments  conducted  under  my  supervision  by  Miss  C.  A. 
Woodman,  it  was  introduced  into  the  work  of  the  Board  on 
June  I,  1889,  and  has  since  that  time  been  in  use  at  the  Law- 
rence Experiment  Station,  as  well  as  in  the  regular  micro- 
scopical examinations  of  drinking  waters  from  aU  parts  of  the 
state. 

On  June  11,  1889,  the  new  method  was  fully  described  at  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  in 


204  STATE  SANITATION 

Fall  River,  and  a  brief  account  of  it  was  afterwards  published.^ 
It  was  adopted  during  the  summer  of  1889  by  the  experts  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health  of  Connecticut,  and  has  been  used  by  them 
in  a  long  series  of  investigations  of  the  water  supplies  of  that 
state.  At  about  the  same  time,  Mr.  George  W.  Rafter,  C.E., 
began  a  novel  and  elaborate  series  of  microscopical  investigations, 
under  the  direction  of  Desmond  FitzGerald,  Esq.,  C.E.,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Western  Division  of  the  Boston  Water  Works. 
The  method  just  described  was  demonstrated  to  them  in  my 
laboratory  and  they  were  furnished  with  a  counting  plate.  Mr. 
Rafter  soon  after  introduced  valuable  improvements  in  the  details 
of  the  method,  an  account  of  which  has  since  been  published.^ 

The  first  important  improvement  introduced  by  Mr.  Rafter 
consisted  in  the  substitution  of  a  ruled  square  in  the  eye-piece  for 
the  ruling  upon  the  plate.  This  is  obviously  a  great  gain  since  it 
removes  the  necessity  of  the  expensive  plates,  specially  ruled  by  a 
dividing  engine.  The  plan  adopted  by  Rafter  is  to  place  within 
the  eye-piece  a  disk  of  glass,  precisely  similar  to  that  used  for 
ordinary  ocular  micrometers,  excepting  that,  in  the  place  of  the 
usual  scale  it  has  upon  it  a  ruled  square.  This  is  chosen  of  such 
a  size  that  it  covers  one  square  millimeter  upon  the  ordinary  sHde. 
I  have  found  it  as  well  or  better  to  employ  in  place  of  the  glass 
disk  a  blackened  metal  disk,  with  a  square  hole  cut  out  of  its 
centre,  since  it  is  not  only  cheaper  and  more  durable,  but  allows 
only  the  area  that  is  to  be  counted  to  be  seen. 

The  only  disadvantage  of  the  eye-piece  square  is  that  it  must  be 
carefully  standardized,  i.  e.,  made  to  coincide  in  outhne  with  a 
square  millimeter  actually  upon  the  slide.  With  different  powers 
this  involves  some  loss  of  time.  It  is,  then,  simply  necessary  to 
have  for  this  work,  besides  the  filter  and  the  microscope,  (i)  a 
metal  eye-piece  diaphragm  perforated  by  a  square  hole  of  such 
size  that,  with  the  objectives  used,  it  shall  easily  cover  one  square 
milKmeter  upon  the  slide;  (2)  a  stage  micrometer,  ruled  in  milh- 
meters,  or,  better,  in  millimeter  squares;    (3)  sHdes  of  the  ordi- 

^  W.  T.  Sedgwick.  "  Recent  Progress  in  Biological  Water  Analysis."  Journal  of 
the  New  England  Water  Works  Association.    September,  1889. 

2  George  W.  Rafter,  C.E.  "  The  Biological  Examination  of  Potable  Water." 
Proceedings,  Rochester  Academy  of  Sciences.    1890.    Rochester,  N.  Y. 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  20$ 

nary  pattern   to  each  of  which  is  cemented  a  rectangular  brass 
border,  inclosing  an  area  50  X  20  milhmeters. 

The  second  improvement  suggested  by  Mr.  Rafter  is  equally 
important,  since  it  seeks  to  do  away  with  the  presence  of  the  sand 
during  the  counting.  I  have  made  very  numerous  experiments  in 
this  direction,  trying  to  find  some  substance  which  should  serve  as 
a  filter  and  afterwards  dissolve.  No  such  substance,  however,  has 
been  found.  Professor  S.  W.  Williston,  microscopist  to  the  state 
Board  of  Health  of  Connecticut,  informs  me  that  he  has  intro- 
duced precipitated  silica  in  the  place  of  sand,  finding  that  it  filters 
rapidly,  yet  thoroughly,  and  distributes  itself  well  upon  the 
counting  plate.  By  working  in  a  different  direction,  Mr.  Rafter 
has  been  more  successful.  He  advises  the  use  of  larger  funnels 
and  comparatively  coarse  sand,  and  recommends  that  300  to  500 
cubic  centimeters  of  the  water  to  be  examined  be  filtered.  The 
sand  and  organisms  are  then  washed  down  into  a  test  tube  with 
3  to  5  cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water.  The  tube  is  shaken 
thoroughly,  and  the  sand  allowed,  for  an  instant,  to  settle.  The 
water  is  then  quickly  decanted,  and  carries  with  it  most  of  the 
organisms.  One  cubic  centimeter  of  this  water  is  then  transferred 
to  the  counting  plate,  covered  with  a  piece  of  thin  glass,  and 
examined  in  the  usual  way.  The  use  of  a  brass  border  one  milli- 
meter high  provides  a  chamber  holding  exactly  one  cubic  centi- 
meter. It  will  be  observed  that  the  principle  here  involved  is  the 
same  as  that  in  Kean's  method  of  agitation  in  a  watch  glass,  and 
the  examination  of  a  portion  of  the  supernatant  liquid  in  a  special 
cell.  The  advantage  of  this  mode  of  procedure  is  obvious.  The 
sand,  which  constitutes  an  obstacle  in  counting,  is  avoided;  the 
low  brass  border  allows  the  use  of  higher  powers;  and  the  fatigue 
of  counting  20  squares  is  diminished.  The  greatest  disadvan- 
tage is  the  surrender  of  the  possibility  of  inspecting  the  entire 
result  of  filtration.  The  quantity  actually  observed  remains  the 
same  as  before,  but  it  is  a  sample  of  the  material  held  back  by  the 
sand,  instead  of  the  entire  mass.  Some  experiments  still  in  prog- 
ress lead  me  to  believe,  however  that  this  disadvantage  is  less 
real  than  appears  from  a  theoretical  consideration  alone;  and  it 
appears  to  me  that  these  several  modifications  introduced  by  Mr. 


2o6  STATE  SANITATION 

Rafter  are  improvements  of  the  greatest  value.  Mr.  Rafter  has 
also  devised  a  simple  mechanical  stage  by  which  the  counting 
plate  is  moved  one  milHmeter  at  a  time  from  side  to  side  or  at 
right  angles  to  this  direction.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  convenience, 
and  it  aids  in  the  unbiassed  selections  of  squares  to  be  counted  — 
a  point  of  much  importance;  but  it  appears  to  me  of  less  impor- 
tance than  the  improvements  already  described. 

The  sand  used  should  be  sharp  quartz  sand,  completely  clean. 
"  Berkshire  "  sand  is  perhaps  the  best  for  the  purpose.  I  have 
been  accustomed  to  use  much  finer  sand  than  Mr.  Rafter; 
namely,  for  ordinary  drinking  waters  such  as  would  pass  through 
a  sieve  having  80  meshes  to  the  Hnear  inch,  but  not  through  one 
having  100.  Such  sand  may  be  described  as  "  80  to  100  sand." 
For  the  effluents  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  a  still  finer 
sand  has  been  frequently  used;  viz.,  finer  than  140;  i.  e.,  sand 
which  will  pass  through  a  sieve  having  meshes  making  (nominally) 
140  to  the  Unear  inch.  In  order  to  separate  the  sand  by  quickly 
decanting,  as  described  above,  a  rather  coarse  sand  must  be  used; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  more  of  it  can  readily  be  employed.  The 
worker  must  be  left  to  determine  in  any  particular  case  the  degree 
of  fineness  advisable;  but  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  is,  appar- 
ently, never  consistent  with  very  rapid  work. 

The  sand  is  conveniently  supported,  either  by  a  rolled  plug 
made  of  fine  brass  gauze,  or  better,  by  a  platform  of  No.  140  brass 
gauze,  made  by  pushing  a  strip  of  the  gauze  up  from  below  into 
the  funnel  stem,  by  means  of  a  tight-fitting  cylindrical  punch, 
such  as  a  glass  rod  or  a  piece  of  coarse  wire.  The  funnel  stem 
must  be  of  even  bore,  and  not  flaring. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  an  average  sample  of 
the  water  to  be  examined.  It  must  be  remembered  that  diatoms, 
algae,  infusoria  and  the  like,  are  suspended  bodies  of  different 
specific  gravity,  and  that  they  are  whirled  about  by  currents, 
tend  to  collect  in  eddies,  and  in  other  ways  behave  far  differently 
from  substances  in  solution.  The  same  considerations  should 
warn  us  against  the  expectation  of  high  quantitative  accuracy, 
either  in  these  methods  or  in  those  of  bacteriology.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  quantitative  results  may  be 


MICROSCOPICAL  ANALYSIS  207 

obtained  by  this  method  of  microscopical  examination,  quite  as 
accurate  and  trustworthy  for  the  microscopical  organisms,  as  by 
the  methods  of  bacteriology  for  the  bacteria. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  method  permits  the  direct  observation 
and  examination  of  water,  sewage,  etc.,  since  it  is  only  necessary 
to  place  upon  the  counting  plate  or  cell,  one  cubic  centimeter  of 
the  Kquid  to  be  examined.  This  method  is,  in  fact,  employed 
with  sewage,  since  in  it  the  organisms  are  abundant;  but  for 
water  or  effluents  it  is  of  no  use,  since  the  quantity  actually 
inspected  is  too  small  to  be  a  fair  sample,  viz.,  50  of  one  cubic 
centimeter.  With  certain  modifications  the  method  is  also 
available  for  the  microscopical  examination  of  sands. 

Mr.  Rafter  has  done  me  the  honor  to  state  that  this  new  method 
for  the  microscopical  examination  of  water  should  bear  my  name 
{op.  cit) ;  but,  inasmuch  as  his  own  improvements  now  form  a 
most  important  and  indispensable  part  of  it,  I  venture  to  suggest 
that  his  name  be  joined  to  mine  in  referring  to  the  method.  A 
careful  investigation  of  the  Sedgwick-Rafter  method,  with 
numerous  tests  by  G.  N.  Calkins,  microscopist  to  the  Board,  is 
already  nearly  completed,  and  will  appear  in  the  Twenty-second 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board. 


XXI 

INVESTIGATIONS  UPON  NITRIFICATION  AND  THE 
NITRIFYING  ORGANISM 

By  Edwin  O.  Jordan  and  Ellen  H.  Richards 

^The  importance  of  nitrification  in  the  purification  of  sewage  was  conclusively 
shown  by  the  Lawrence  experiments.  This  paper  by  Dr.  Jordan  and  Mrs.  Richards 
describes  an  attempt  to  establish  the  biological  basis  of  nitrification.  Part  II,  Report 
on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  865.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  nitrogen  of  organic  substances  is,  for  the  most  part,  liber- 
ated during  decay  in  the  form  of  ammonia  or  ammoniacal  com- 
pounds; and  these  substances  yield,  by  oxidation,  nitrous  acid 
and  finally  nitric  acid,  which,  in  turn,  in  the  form  of  nitrates  feeds 
the  Uving  plant,  and  thus  begins  again  the  cycle  of  transformation. 

The  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen  of  ammonia,  and  its  ultimate 
conversion  into  nitric  acid,  is  called  nitrification.  This  change  is 
especially  active  in  soils  near  the  surface,  where  nitrates  are 
formed  abundantly  from  percolating  waters  which  contain  much 
nitrogenous  matter. 

This  phase  of  nitrification,  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  porous 
soil,  has  been  attentively  studied.  But  less  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  process  of  nitrification  as  it  goes  on  in  surface  waters, 
such  as  streams  and  ponds;  and  it  is  to  this  side  of  the  question, 
namely,  nitrification  as  it  occurs  in  natural  waters,  that  our  study 
has  been  chiefly  directed. 

Some  eighty  samples  of  water,  selected  from  the  two  hundred 
and  forty  coming  each  month  to  the  laboratory  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health,  were  examined  at  intervals  of  from  two  to  seven  days 
for  ammonia,  nitrites  and  nitrates.  These  samples  were  re- 
ceived from  all  parts  of  the  state,  and  included  all  classes  of 
surface  water,  rivers,  ponds,  and  reservoirs.  They  were  examined 
repeatedly  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  1888. 

The  results  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows.  The  organic 
matter  in  suspension  decays  in  about  seven  days,  as  is  shown  by 

208 


NITRIFICATION  AND  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM    209 

the  increase  in  "  free  ammonia."  In  about  fourteen  clays  this 
"  free  ammonia  "  has  disappeared,  and  nitrite  has  taken  its  place, 
reaching  a  maximum  in  about  twenty-one  days.  Later  the  nitrite 
too  disappears,  and  in  twenty-eight  days  or  more  all  the  nitrogen 
has  been  converted  into  the  form  of  nitrate.  When  the  suspended 
matter  is  removed  by  filtration  through  paper  or  by  precipitation 
with  alumina,  no  change  occurs  unless  free  ammonia  were  present 
at  the  outset. 

These  changes  were  so  universal  and  so  independent  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  water  and  of  its  condition  of  aeration,  that  it  seemed 
important  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  unusual  opportunity  offered  by 
the  close  proximity  of  the  chemical  and  biological  laboratories  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health,  to  carry  on  a  series  of  chemical  and 
bacteriological  investigations  on  solutions  of  known  composition. 
Accordingly  we  began  a  series  of  experiments  covering  a  period  of 
nearly  two  years,  in  which  the  daily  and  weekly  changes  caused 
by  the  growth  of  bacteria  were  watched  from  both  the  chem- 
ical and  the  bacteriological  standpoint,  in  order  to  determine 
the  sequence  and  rate  of  such  changes.  Other  points  came 
up  in  the  course  of  the  work,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
pages. 

There  are  thus  several  views  which  are  held  regarding  the  action 
of  individual  species  of  bacteria  on  nitrogenous  solutions : 

1 .  That  there  is  a  group  of  bacteria  capable  of  oxidizing  ammo- 
nia to  nitric  acid,  and  another  and  separate  group  able  to  reduce 
nitrates  to  nitrites  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter.  Both  kinds 
are  widely  and  abundantly  distributed.  Attendant  circumstances 
determine  whether  the  reducing  or  the  oxidizing  group  will  gain 
the  upper  hand.    (Heroeus.) 

2.  That  all  kinds  of  bacteria,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
are  capable  of  producing  nitric  acid,  and  that  the  same  organisms 
in  the  presence  of  organic  matter  are  capable  of  reducing  nitrates. 
(CelH  and  Zucco.    Leone.) 

3.  (a)  That  different  species  of  bacteria  vary  greatly  in  their 
ability  to  reduce  nitrates;  and  (b)  that  there  is  no  reliable  evi- 
dence that  any  individual  species  is  able  to  oxidize  ammonia 
either  to  nitric  or  nitrous  acid.    (Warington.    Frankland.) 


2IO  STATE  SANITATION 

Such  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  divergent  opinions  upon  nitrifica- 
tion which  were  held  at  the  time  we  ^  began  our  work  in  the 
autumn  of  1888.  It  seemed  to  us  important  to  approach  the 
subject  from  all  sides,  and  we  have  worked  accordingly  not  only 
with  pure  cultivation  of  bacteria,  but  also  with  various  sands, 
soils,  and  waters  containing  mixtures  of  several  kinds.  We  have 
considered  it  of  fundamental  importance  to  determine  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  nitrifying  organism,  and,  if  possible,  to  ascertain 
the  relative  frequency  with  which  it  occurs  over  a  wide  area.  The 
question,  for  instance,  naturally  arose,  is  the  nitrifying  organism 
present  in  the  Boston  city  water  as  delivered  from  the  tap  in  the 
laboratories  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  since 
this  is  the  water  used  in  making  up  our  solutions?  To  this  ques- 
tion we  are  able  to  give  a  decided  affirmative.  Ammoniacal  solu- 
tions carefully  made  with  tap  water  always  nitrify.  Moreover, 
ammoniacal  solutions  which  have  been  sterilized  and  then  inocu- 
lated with  a  cubic  centimeter  of  fresh  tap  water  always  nitrify. 
Repeated  experiments  show  that  the  nitrifying  organism  is  in- 
variably present  in  this  water.  When,  however,  ammoniacal 
solutions  were  inoculated  from  the  separate  colonies  appearing 
on  a  gelatin  plate  culture  of  this  water,  in  every  instance  there 
has  been  obtained  only  a  negative  result.  To  this  matter  of 
inoculation  with  pure  cultures  of  bacteria  we  shall  recur  presently. 

In  many  of  our  early  experiments  upon  nitrification  we  used  a 
mixture  of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  fresh  urine  with  two  Uters  of 
tap  water.  This  mixture  was  found  to  yield,  when  freshly  made, 
about  0.5000  free  ammonia,  0.2000  albuminoid  ammonia,  0.0002 
nitrites  and  0.0250  nitrates,  in  100,000.  This  nitrogenous  solution 
was  allowed  to  stand  at  the  temperature  of  the  room  (21°- 
23°  C),  and  was  tested  from  time  to  time  for  nitrites  and  nitrates. 
The  method  used  for  the  determination  of  nitrites  has  been 
Griess's  naphthalamine  method.  This  method  is  sufficiently 
delicate  to  detect  the  presence  of  one  part  of  nitrogen  as  nitrite  in 
one  thousand  millions.    The  method  for  determining  nitrates  is  a 

1  The  series  of  experiments  detailed  in  this  paper  were  planned  and  carried  out 
jointly  by  the  authors,  the  bacteriological  portion  of  the  work  being  done  by  Mr. 
Jordan,  and  the  chemical  portion  by  Mrs.  Richards. 


NITRIFICATION  AND  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM    211 


modified  form  of  the  phenolsulphonic  method  of  Grandval  and 
Lejoux. 

The  following  tables  contain  the  results  of  a  few  experiments 
out  of  the  many  hundreds  which  we  have  made  with  solutions  of 
nitrogenous  substances :  — 

Table  38 
Illustrations  of  Nitrification  in  Natural  Waters 

A.   Ground  Water 

(Parts  per  loo.ooo] 

From  Wesiborough,  ist  Sample  From  Westborougk,  2d  Sample 


Nitrogen  as 

Nitrogen  as 

Albu- 
min- 
oid 
Am- 

Free 
Am- 
monia 

Ni- 
trites 

Ni- 
trates 

Albu- 
min- 
oid 
Am- 

Free 
Am- 
monia 

Ni- 
trites 

Ni- 
trates 

monia 

moma 

1888 

1888 

June  26 

.0047 

•0347 

.0000 

.0020 

July  18 

.00^ "; 

.0412 

After    8  days . . 

.0000 

After    8  days  . 

.0001 

«     16     «    .. 

.0320 

"      16     «      . 

.0067 

"     20     "    .. 

.0360 

"      20     «      . 

.04CX) 

«     27     "    .. 

.0000 

.0280 

"      27     "      . 

.0000 

"     31     "    •• 

.0000 

.0300 

"     31      "      . 

.0000 

.0320 

B.  Surface  Waters 
[Parts  per  loo.ooo] 


Ludlow  Reservoir,  Springfield 

Birch  Pond, 

Lynn 

Nitrogen  as 

Nitrogen  as 

Albu- 

Albu- 

Albu- 

Albu- 

mm- 

minoid 

minoid 

oid 

Am- 

Free 

Ni- 

Ni- 

Am- 

Free 

Ni- 

Ni- 

Am- 

monia 

Am- 

trites 

trates 

monia 

monia 

Am- 

trites 

trates 

monia 

in  Sus- 

monia 

in  Sus- 

monia 

in  So- 

pen- 

pen- 

lution 

sion 

sion 

1888 

When  collected  . . . 

.0059 

.0176 

.0110 

.0000 

.0020 

.0038 

.0178 

.OD06 

.0000 

.0000 

After    9  days 

.0222 

.0083 

.0036 

"      21      «     

•OI4S 

.0060 

.0087 

"      27     "     

.0000 

.0280 

.0005 

"     47     "     

.0250 

212  STATE  SANITATION 

Not  only  is  the  nitrifying  organism  present  in  Boston  tap  water, 
as  the  above  experiments  clearly  demonstrate,  but  it  appears  to  be 
equally  common  in  water  from  all  parts  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts. So  far  as  our  experience  has  gone,  any  natural  water, 
containing  the  ordinary  amount  of  free  or  albuminoid  ammonia, 
contains  also  the  nitrifying  organism,  as  is  shown  by  our  long 
series  of  tests.  In  these  natural  waters  the  nitrifying  organism 
seems  to  be  under  wholly  normal  conditions,  and  to  be  abundantly 
able  to  effect  the  oxidation  of  the  small  quantities  of  nitrogen 
usually  present  in  these  waters.  Waters  that  contain  high 
"  albuminoid  ammonia,"  in  cases  where  this  "  ammonia  "  comes 
from  the  nitrogen  in  infusoria,  algae,  etc.,  go  through  the 
same  changes  as  those  which  contain  "  free  ammonia,"  but  more 
slowly.  The  organisms  in  time  die,  the  bacteria  set  free  the 
nitrogen  of  their  bodies,  forming  free  ammonia,  and  then  in  turn 
nitrites  and  nitrates. 

It  might,  perhaps,  be  reasonably  expected  that,  since  the  nitri- 
f3dng  organism  is  undoubtedly  present  in  all  these  waters,  an  ex- 
amination of  gelatin  plate  cultures  of  these  waters  would  reveal 
some  particular  kind  or  kinds  of  colonies  common  to  all,  and  in 
that  way  aid  in  sifting  out  the  nitrifying  organisms.  Our  experi- 
ence has  shown,  however,  that  such  a  hope  is  unfounded.  So  far 
as  the  inspection  of  gelatin  plate  cultures  enables  us  to  judge,  no 
one  kind  of  colony  is  common  to  all  these  waters.  This  fact,  on 
the  surface,  seemed  to  favor  the  view  that  the  power  of  nitrifica- 
tion was  not  the  property  of  any  particular  organism,  but  was 
very  Hkely  possessed  in  common  by  a  number  of  kindred  species. 

The  other  line  of  bacteriological  work  —  the  inoculation  of 
nitrogenous  solutions  with  pure  cultures  of  isolated  bacteria  — 
has  been  followed  up  from  the  outset,  and  was  begun  with  full 
confidence  in  ultimate  success.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give  a  de- 
tailed account  of  our  experiments  in  this  direction.  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  the  nitrogenous  solutions  have,  from  beginning  to  end, 
failed  to  nitrify.  Nitrogenous  solutions  of  various  sorts  have 
been  used,  pepsin  solutions,  peptone  solutions,  ammonium  chlo- 
ride solutions,  Frankland's  solution,^  etc.,  aU  with  the  same 

1  Zeitschr.  fiir  Hygiene,  Bd.  VI,  1889,  p.  376. 


NITRIFICATION  AND  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM    213 

unfaiKngly  negative  result.  A  large  nuinber  of  species  of  bacteria 
have  been  used  for  inoculation,  not  only  well-known  species  like 
B.  prodigiosus,  B.  megaterium,  Proteus,  etc.,  but  many  species 
freshly  isolated  from  water,  sewage,  the  sand  of  nitrifying  filter 
tanks,  and  similar  favorable  situations  for  the  nitrifying  organ- 
ism. The  experiments  have  been  always  prolonged  for  several 
months,  and  in  some  cases  for  more  than  a  year.  Conditions  of 
temperature,  amount  of  surface  exposed  to  the  air,  etc.,  have 
been  varied  in  many  directions.  Nitrogenous  solutions  contain- 
ing a  single  species  of  bacterium  have  been  poured  upon  sterilized 
sand,  and  allowed  to  settle  in  such  a  way  as  to  imitate  closely  the 
conditions  obtaining  in  filter  tanks.  In  all,  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  experiments  have  been  made,  covering  a 
period  of  two  years.  In  every  case,  without  a  single  exception, 
there  was  not  the  sHghtest  evidence  of  nitrification  by  any  single 
species. 

There  still  remained  a  plausible  explanation  of  this  striking  suc- 
cession of  negative  results.  It  might  be  that,  although  any  one 
species  working  alone  was  not  able  to  effect  nitrification,  a  number 
of  different  species  working  together  might  be  able  to  produce  the 
desired  result.  This  was  certainly  not  an  unreasonable  supposi- 
tion, judging  from  analogous  fermentative  processes;  co-opera- 
tion and  combination  might  perhaps  effect  more  than  individual 
and  independent  action.  Several  experiments  were  accordingly 
made  with  the  view  of  determining  this  point.  Here  again  the 
results  were  invariably  negative.  Ammoniacal  solutions,  inocu- 
lated with  mixtures  of  several  species  under  pure  cultivation, 
always  failed  to  nitrify.  In  one  experiment,  for  example,  a  nitrog- 
enous solution,  found  by  experience  to  nitrify  rapidly  and  com- 
pletely when  seeded  with  garden  soil,  was  inoculated  with  a 
mixture  of  six  different  species  of  bacteria.  These  six  species  were 
all  isolated  from  soils  and  waters  known  to  contain  the  nitrifying 
organism.  An  examination  of  the  solution  from  time  to  time,  by 
the  method  of  gelatin  plate  culture,  showed  a  vigorous  growth  on 
the  part  of  all  the  species,  but  there  was  at  no  time  the  slightest 
evidence  of  nitrification,  although  the  experiment  continued  for 
upwards  of  five  months. 


214  STATE  SANITATION 

Hardly  were  our  experiments  well  under  way,  before  our  in- 
terest was  stimulated  by  the  publication  of  communications 
by  Percy  F.  Frankland  and  Grace  Frankland,  and  by  Robert 
Warington.^ 

The  Franklands,  having  reached  a  conclusion  similar  to  our  own 
regarding  the  behavior  of  the  nitrifying  organism  in  gelatin,  had 
also  attempted  to  isolate  the  nitrifying  organism  by  the  dilution 
method,  and  had  succeeded  in  this  attempt.  They  state,  in  their 
abstract  of  the  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  that,  "  after  a 
very  large  number  of  experiments  had  been  made  in  this  direction, 
the  authors  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  attenuation  con- 
sisting of  about  i-i,ooo,oooth  of  the  original  nitrifying  solution 
employed,  which  not  only  nitrified,  but,  on  inoculation  into  gela- 
tin-peptone, refused  to  grow,  and  was  seen  under  the  microscope 
to  consist  of  numerous  characteristic  bacilh,  hardly  longer  than 
broad,  which  may  be  described  as  bacillo-cocci." 

Warington's  communication  entirely  confirms  that  of  the 
Franklands,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  their  earHer  and  negative 
results.  He  had  not,  however,  at  the  time  of  writing,  succeeded 
in  isolating  the  nitrifying  organism. 

A  paper  by  Winogradsky  followed  soon  after.  He  appears  to 
have  discovered  independently  a  nitrifying  organism,  and  attrib- 
utes his  success  largely  to  his  microscopic  examinations  of  the 
nitrifying  solutions,  and  to  his  use  of  solutions  devoid  of  organic 
matter.  The  following  is  the  composition  of  the  liquid  finally 
adopted  by  him :  — 

Ammonium  sulphate i  grm. 

Potassium  phosphate i  grm. 

Water  from  the  lake  (at  Zurich,  tres  pure) i,ooo  grms. 

Each  portion  of  loo  cubic  centimeters  received  in  addition  0.5  to 
I  grm.  of  basic  magnesium  carbonate,  suspended  in  distilled  water. 
Winogradsky  found  that  this  layer  of  magnesium  carbonate  at 
the  bottom  of  each  flask  afforded  an  excellent  gathering  place  for 
flocks  of  the  nitrifying  organism.  The  "  nitric  ferment  "  does  not, 
as  the  Franklands  had  already  shown,  grow  well  upon  ordinary 
gelatin  plate  cultures;  and  this  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  failure 
^  The  Chemical  News,  Vol.  LXI,  p.  135,  March  21,  1890. 


NITRIFICATION  AND  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM    215 

of  all  previous  experimenters  to  isolate  the  special  ferment.  For 
Winogradsky's  detailed  description  of  the  nitric  ferment,  and  for  a 
statement  of  his  peculiar  views  concerning  its  function,  "  de  regu- 
lariser  la  circulation  du  carbone  sur  notre  planete,"  we  must  refer 
to  his  original  papers.^ 

Before  receiving  Winogradsky's  paper,  in  the  spring  of  1890,  we 
had  been  using  in  our  work,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Allen  Hazen, 
an  ammoniacal  solution  of  the  following  composition :  — 

Ammonium  chloride  (resubiimed) 1.9070  grms. 

Sodium  carbonate 3-7842  grms. 

Sodium  phosphate 2000  grm. 

Potassium  sulphate 2000  grm. 

These  salts  were  dissolved  in  such  a  quantity  of  redistilled 
water  that  the  solution  contained  100  parts  of  nitrogen  per  100,- 
000,  and  two  equivalents  of  alkaH.  Ten  cubic  centimeters  of  this 
solution  were  mixed  with  one  liter  of  redistilled  water,  and  then 
inoculated  as  desired.  The  flasks  used  have  been  made  chemically 
clean  by  boiling  with  potassium  permanganate,  and  the  water 
used  has  been  twice  distilled.  The  other  rigid  precautions  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  all  work  of  this  character  have  always  been 
taken.  The  solutions  thus  prepared  have  contained  from  o.oooi 
to  o.ooio  parts  per  100,000  of  albuminoid  ammonia. 

Proceeding  with  this  solution  by  the  method  of  dilution,  we  at 
length  succeeded  in  isolating  a  nitrifying  organism.  A  flask  was 
first  inoculated  with  a  few  grains  of  sand  from  Tank  No.  13,  at  the 
Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  and  when  nitrification  was  at  its 
height  in  this  solution,  a  small  portion  was  transferred  from  this 
to  a  second  flask,  and  so  on.  After  a  large  number  of  unsuccessful 
attempts,  two  solutions  were  finally  obtained  which  nitrified  well, 
but  gave  no  growth  upon  ordinary  gelatin  plate  cultures,  although 
the  plates  were  allowed  to  stand  for  seven  days.  Microscopic 
examination  of  these  solutions  showed  them  to  be  inhabited  by  a 
particular  form  of  bacillus,  and  apparently  by  that  alone.  These 
bacilH  are  short,  of  a  slightly  oval  shape,  and  vary  from  i.i  /x  to 
1.7  n  in  length;  they  are  about  0.8  fx  to  0.9  fx  broad.  They  are 
grouped  very  characteristically  in  irregular  clumps,  and  are  held 

1  Annales  de  I'lnstitut  Pasteur.    Tome  IV,  1890,  No.  4,  p.  213;  No.  5,  p.  257. 


2i6  STATE  SANITATION 

together  by  a  jelly-like  material.  Each  aggregation  is  indeed  a 
typical  zoogloea.  The  aggregations  of  bacteria  were  found  chiefly 
on  the  bottom  of  the  flasks,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  organism 
described  by  Winogradsky.  These  masses  of  zoogloea,  obtained 
as  a  pure  culture  from  a  nitrifying  solution,  resemble  signifi- 
cantly the  zoogloea  discharged  in  considerable  quantities  from 
the  filter  tanks  at  Lawrence.  The  bacilli  stain  with  some  diffi- 
culty with  the  usual  anihne  dyes.  We  have  not  observed  inde- 
pendent movement.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  the  usual  means  of 
diagnosis,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  in  a  short  time  whether  this 
species  is  the  same  as  the  one  described  by  the  Franklands  and  by 
Winogradsky.  On  one  important  point  there  appears  to  be  a 
difference  between  our  results  and  those  reached  by  the  above- 
mentioned  investigators.  The  organism  discovered  by  them 
oxidizes  ammonia  to  nitrite,  but  carries  it  no  farther.  Our  own 
flasks  give  complete  oxidation  to  nitrate.  Whether  this  be  due  to 
a  difference  of  conditions,  a  difference  in  the  virility  of  the  organ- 
isms, or  a  specific  difference  in  the  bacteria,  we  are  not  at  present 
prepared  to  say.  The  short  time  at  our  disposal  has  made  it 
impossible  to  settle  this  and  many  other  questions  to  our  own 
satisfaction.  We  are  not  even  prepared  to  say  that  there  may  not 
have  been  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  species  in  our  flasks,  all  agree- 
ing closely  in  morphological  characters,  and  in  giving  no  growth 
on  gelatin,  but  differing  in  important  physiological  respects. 
Further  investigation  is  necessary  to  settle  this  and  other  impor- 
tant points  regarding  the  relations  of  this  organism  to  the  process 
of  nitrification. 

Whether  or  not  we  accept  the  views  of  Winogradsky,  it  is  cer- 
tainly worthy  of  remark,  as  he  observes,  that  an  organism  should 
exist,  which,  without  chlorophyll  and  in  the  apparent  absence  of 
organic  nitrogen  and  of  organic  carbon,  should  be  able  to  multiply 
and  thrive  upon  wholly  inorganic  compounds.  It  may  well  be 
doubted,  we  think,  whether  this  is  really  the  case.  It  seems  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  exceedingly  minute  quantities  of 
organic  nitrogen  and  carbon  are  actually  present,  and  escape 
detection  by  our  present  methods  of  chemical  analysis,  although 
in  reality  sufficient  to  nourish  generations  of  bacteria. 


NITRIFICATION  AND  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM    217 

Our  own  experience,  as  well  as  that  of  previous  investigators, 
seems  to  be  a  warning  against  a  too  confiding  use  of  the  gelatin 
plate  culture  in  bacteriological  work,  since  in  this  instance  such 
confidence  has  left  us  for  a  long  time  in  ignorance  of  a  common 
and  widespread  as  well  as  highly  important  organism. 


XXII 

THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES 

By  Thomas  M.  Drown,  M.D. 

[In  Part  I,  of  the  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  1890,  p.  517,  Dr. 
Drown  published  a  report,  now  rightfully  regarded  as  a  classic,  on  water  analyses 
and  their  interpretation.  The  article  here  reprinted  is  practically  a  summary  of  the 
former  work.    Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1892,  p.  319.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  value  of  a  sanitary  analysis  of  water  rests  on  its  interpreta- 
tion. It  has  little  in  common  with  an  analysis  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  specific  substances.  The  result  of  an  analysis 
of  a  mineral  water,  for  instance,  in  which  the  amounts  of  various 
mineral  substances  are  given,  is  a  statement  of  fact  which  needs 
no  interpretation.  But  in  the  case  of  a  sanitary  analysis  the 
results  must  be  considered  in  connection  with  a  great  number  of 
conditions,  such  as  locality  and  surroundings  of  the  water,  the 
season  of  the  year,  depth  of  lake  or  pond  at  which  the  sample  is 
taken,  and  a  great  many  more.  To  take  one  illustration  only:  an 
amount  of  chlorine  in  a  water  in  one  locaHty,  which  would  be 
without  significance,  would  in  another  be  an  evidence  of  consider- 
able pollution  with  sewage.  It  is  the  object  of  the  present  article 
to  give  very  briefly  the  conditions  governing  this  interpretation, 
and  the  reader  is  referred  to  an  article  on  the  same  subject  in  the 
volume  on  the  "  Examination  of  Water  SuppHes,"  1890,  in  which 
the  subject  is  treated  at  greater  length. 

The  object  of  a  sanitary  analysis  of  water  is  to  determine  the 
amount  of  mineral  and  organic  matter  dissolved  and  suspended  in 
the  water,  and  also,  as  far  as  it  is  possible,  to  determine  the  charac- 
ter and  condition  of  the  organic  matter.  The  microscope  is  a 
valuable  aid  in  this  connection,  as  it  enables  us  to  recognize  forms 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  and  also  at  times  the  products  of 
their  disintegration  and  decomposition.  The  appearance  of  the 
water  is  also  carefully  noted,  the  amount  and  character  of  its 
permanent  turbidity  and  sediment,  and  also  its  odor,  both  cold 

and  hot. 

218 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         219 

Organic  matter,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  is  composed  mainly 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  united  in  various  pro- 
portions. Animal  matter  contains  generally  much  more  nitrogen 
than  vegetable  matter,  and  decomposes  more  rapidly.  By  decom- 
position is  meant  the  gradual  oxidation  of  the  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen  of  the  organic  matter,  whereby  these  elements  are 
converted  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  nitric  acid  (nitrates). 
In  this  process  of  oxidation  the  carbon  first  combines  with  the 
oxygen,  and  ammonia  (a  combination  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen) 
is  formed.  This  ammonia  is  next  oxidized,  the  hydrogen  to  water 
and  the  nitrogen  first  to  nitrous  acid  (nitrites)  and  ultimately  to 
nitric  acid  (nitrates).  Carbonic  acid,  water  and  nitric  acid  are 
the  final  results  of  the  complete  oxidation  or  minerahzation  of  the 
organic  matter,  while  ammonia  and  nitrites  are  intermediate 
products,  and  represent  decomposition  in  progress.  These 
chemical  changes  are  the  result  of  the  activity  of  micro-organisms, 
and  do  not  take  place  in  their  absence. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  compounds  of  nitrogen  can 
be  determined  with  great  accuracy  and  facility,  it  is  usual  to 
determine  organic  matter  in  water,  and  the  extent  of  the  change 
which  it  has  undergone  by  decomposition,  by  means  of  the  amount 
and  condition  of  the  nitrogen.  Thus  we  determine  the  amount  of 
the  nitrogen  existing  in  the  organic  matter  which  has  not  yet 
begun  to  decompose  (organic  nitrogen  ^ — albuminoid  ammonia), 
the  amount  existing  as  ammonia,  the  amount  in  the  form  of 
nitrites,  and  the  amount  in  the  form  of  nitrates. 

Other  methods  of  determining  organic  matter  in  water  are  by 
means  of  the  "  oxygen  consumed,"  when  the  water  is  treated  with 
potassium  permanganate,  and  by  the  "  loss  on  ignition,"  when 
the  solid  residue  of  the  evaporation  is  heated  to  dull  redness.  The 
"  fixed  residue  "  after  ignition  represents  the  amount  of  mineral 
matter  in  the  water.  The  determination  of  chlorine  expresses  the 
amount  of  common  salt  in  a  water,  and  is  a  measure  of  the  degree 
of  pollution  by  sewage  or  house  drainage,  as  will  be  subsequently 
described.^ 

1  For  the  methods  of  analysis,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  special  reports  of  the 
Board  on  the  "  Examination  of  Water  Supplies,"  and  the  "  Purification  of  Sewage," 


220 


STATE  SANITATION 


The  differences  in  surface  and  ground  waters  are  so  great 
and  radical,  the  former  containing  always  more  or  less  vege- 
table and  animal  life,  and  the  latter  being  (normally)  free  from 
life,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  significance  of  the  different 
determinations  in  these  two  classes  of  water  separately. 

Albuminoid  Ammonia 

Albuminoid  ammonia  represents  the  nitrogen  in  organic  matter 
which  has  not  yet  begun  to  decompose  by  oxidation.  As  ordi- 
narily determined  by  the  methods  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
it  is  about  one-half  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  unaltered  organic 
matter.  It  affords  in  itself  no  indication  whether  the  source  of 
the  nitrogen  is  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  In  surface  waters 
which  are  unpolluted  by  sewage  we  find  a  very  wide  range  in  the 
amounts  of  albuminoid  ammonia.  Brown  swampy  waters  always 
contain  a  large  amount  in  solution,  and  waters  with  abundant 
vegetable  growth  have  in  addition  a  considerable  amount  in 
suspension.  Following  are  a  few  instances,  the  average  amount 
during  many  years,  of  albuminoid  ammonia  in  unpolluted  ponds 
and  reservoirs:  — 

Table  39 


[Parts  per  100,000] 

Color 

Free  _ 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid  Ammonia 

Total 

Suspended 

Lenox,  Storage  Reservoir 

New  Bedford  Storage  Reservoir .  . 
Springfield,  Ludlow  Reservoir. .  .  . 
Leominster,     Haynes     Reservoir 

(average) 

Leominster,    Haynes    Reservoir, 

August,  1887 

1.36 
0.15 

0-39 

0.60 
1. 21 

.0001 
.0015 
.0019 

.0023 

.0006 
.0058 

.0028 
.0248 
.0381 

.0409 

.1052 
.0615 

.0018 
.0154 

•0133 

Lynn,  Walden  Pond 

.0212 

An  average  analysis  of  Lawrence  sewage  shows  0.5302  part  al- 
buminoid ammonia,  and  1.8202  parts  of  free  ammonia  per  100,000. 
It  would  therefore  take  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of  sewage 
added  to  a  pure  body  of  water  to  raise  the  amount  of  albuminoid 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES    221 

ammonia  to  the  amount  found  in  one  instance  in  Haynes  Reser- 
voir. Instances  might  be  multiplied  to  show  that  high  albumi- 
noid ammonia  is  in  itself  no  evidence  of  sewage  pollution.  In 
most  surface  waters  the  source  of  the  albuminoid  ammonia  is  to 
be  sought  in  organic  matter  derived  from  vegetable  growths  in  the 
water,  from  vegetable  debris  in  the  bottoms  of  ponds  and  reser- 
voirs, and  also  from  swamps.  In  the  latter  case  the  water  has  a 
brown  color.  New  Bedford  water,  cited  above,  is  a  good  instance 
of  a  water  highly  colored  with  vegetable  matter.  Neither  is  high 
albuminoid  ammonia,  when  accompanied  with  high  free  ammonia, 
necessarily  indicative  of  sewage  pollution. 

The  rapid  decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  when 
in  excessive  amount,  gives  rise  also  to  high  free  ammonia.  Thus 
one  analysis  of  water  from  Glen  Lewis  Pond,  in  Lynn,  November, 
1 89 1,  has  0.1060  part  of  free  ammonia  with  0.0606  part  of  albu- 
minoid ammonia.  Considerable  sewage  pollution  of  a  body  of 
water  is,  nevertheless,  accompanied  by  high  free  and  albuminoid 
ammonia.  Thus  the  average  analysis  of  the  highly  polluted 
Blackstone  River  below  Worcester  for  1891  shows  0.3340  free 
ammonia  and  0.1563  albuminoid  ammonia.  The  point  which  it 
is  desired  to  emphasize  is  that  coincident  high  free  and  albumi- 
noid ammonia  do  not  necessarily  indicate  sewage  pollution. 

In  good  ground  waters  albuminoid  ammonia  is  frequently 
entirely  absent,  and  rarely  exceeds  0.0025  P^rt  per  100,000.  When 
it  is  much  more  than  this,  the  excess  may  be  due  to  an  admixture 
of  surface  water,  or  to  imperfect  filtration.  Thus  the  average 
albuminoid  ammonia  of  the  well  at  Ware  was  for  two  years 
o.ooii;  for  the  wells  at  Eaton's  Meadows,  Maiden,  for  1891, 
0.0007.  Instances  of  imperfect  filtration  are  seen  in  Wayland  and 
Whitman,  where  filter- galleries  alongside  of  ponds  show  respec- 
tively 0.0186  and  0.0188  albuminoid  ammonia.  In  contrast  with 
these  cases  of  imperfect  filtration  may  be  mentioned  the  water  in 
filter-gallery  on  the  borders  of  the  highly  polluted  Horn  Pond 
in  Woburn,  in  which  the  albuminoid  ammonia  is  ordinarily  only 
0.0028  parts  in  100,000. 

When  a  ground  water  containing  considerable  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  nitrates  is  exposed  to  light  in  open  reservoirs,  the  condi- 


22  2  STATE  SANITATION 

tions  are  particularly  favorable  for  a  rapid  growth  of  algae,  which 
appear  in  the  analysis  as  albuminoid  ammonia.  By  reason  of  this 
exposure  to  the  light,  the  ground  water  has  become  a  surface 
water,  and  must  be  classified  accordingly. 

Free  Ammonia 

Free  ammonia  is  always  a  decomposition  product  of  organic 
matter.  In  itself  it  is  harmless  mineral  matter ;  its  significance  in 
water  analysis  rests  on  the  fact  that  it  may  be  accompanied  by 
organic  matter  in  the  process  of  decomposition,  or  that  it  may 
indicate  the  presence  of  sewage,  of  which  free  ammonia  is  one  of 
the  characteristic  ingredients. 

In  good  clean  ponds,  unpolluted  by  sewage,  the  free  ammonia  is 
very  rarely  high,  for  as  fast  as  it  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  vegetable  and  animal  organisms  in  the  water  it  is  immediately 
appropriated  by  growing  water  plants. 

For  instance,  the  average  of  monthly  determinations  for  two 
years  of  free  ammonia  in  Watuppa  Lake,  Fall  River  (a  light- 
colored  water),  was  0.0005  P^^^t  per  100,000;  in  Reservoir  4  of  the 
Boston  Water  Works  (in  a  moderately  dark- colored  water),  0.0006 
part;  and  in  Acushnet  Reservoir,  New  Bedford  (a  very  dark- 
colored  water) ,  o.ooi  5  part  per  100,000.  In  bodies  of  water  which 
receive  much  sewage  the  free  ammonia  may  be  in  much  greater 
quantity  than  the  plants  can  appropriate.  Thus  the  average  of 
free  ammonia  in  Horn  Pond,  Woburn  (which  receives  a  large 
amount  of  wastes  from  tanneries),  for  two  years  was  0.0152 
part  per  100,000,  and  in  Mystic  Lake  the  amount  was  0.0235 
part. 

The  amount  of  free  ammonia  in  the  warmer  months,  when  the 
vegetation  is  most  active,  is  lower  than  in  the  colder  months. 
Thus  in  Mystic  Lake  in  August,  1888,  the  free  ammonia  was 
entirely  absent,  while  in  Januar}-  of  the  same  year  it  was  0.0573 
part  per  100,000.  Even  in  clean,  unpolluted  ponds  the  free 
ammonia  is  generally  higher  in  winter,  although  it  seldom  reaches 
any  considerable  amount.  The  highest  winter  free  ammonia 
noticed  in  Reservoir  4  of  the  Boston  Water  Works,  at  a  depth  of 
one  foot,  was  in  January,  1891,  when  it  was  0.0028  part.     In 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         223 

reservoirs  which  have  been  flooded,  without  the  removal  of  the 
soil  and  stumps  of  trees,  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable 
matter  may  be  so  rapid  in  summer  that  the  free  ammonia  formed 
is  greatly  in  excess  of  that  which  the  plant  growth  can  absorb. 
Glen  Lewis  Pond,  Lynn,  is  a  reservoir  of  this  character.  The 
average  free  ammonia  for  1890  was  0.0412  part  per  100,000;  and 
in  September  of  that  year  it  was  0.1390  part. 

The  depth  of  the  water  has  also  an  influence  on  the  amount  of 
free  ammonia.  The  lower  layers  of  deep  ponds  are  stagnant  in 
summer,  and  when  the  bottom  contains  much  decomposable 
organic  matter  the  oxygen  is  quickly  exhausted,  and  putrefaction 
sets  in  with  the  formation  of  much  free  ammonia.  In  clean  ponds 
and  reservoirs  this  tendency  is  not  strongly  marked.  For  instance, 
the  bottom  stagnant  layer  of  water  of  Reservoir  4  (a  basin  care- 
fully cleaned  before  filling) ,  at  a  depth  of  forty  feet,  rarely  reaches 
0.005^0  part  in  free  ammonia,  while  the  bottom  layer  in  Jamaica 
Pond,  Boston  (fifty  feet  from  the  surface),  has  been  known  to 
contain  nearly  0.5000  part  per  100,000.  This  condition  of  affairs 
is  apt  to  occur  also  when  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  shut  off  from  a 
water  which  contains  much  decomposable  organic  matter,  as,  for 
instance,  when  a  stream  or  pond  is  for  a  long  time  covered  with 
ice. 

The  significance  of  free  ammonia  in  ground  waters  is  of  entirely 
different  character  from  that  in  surface  waters,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  no  free  growth  can  take  place  in  the  absence  of  light.  The 
oxidation  of  the  nitrogen  of  ammonia  to  nitric  acid  goes  on  so 
rapidly  in  the  pores  of  the  ground  near  the  surface  where  air  is 
abundant,  that  it  is  unusual  to  find  any  unoxidized  nitrogen  in 
natural  ground  waters.  That  is  to  say,  the  nitrogen  in  these 
waters  is  usually  entirely  oxidized,  and  appears  in  the  form  of 
nitrates.  The  presence  of  free  ammonia  in  a  ground  water  is  an 
indication  of  imperfect  purification  of  a  water  which  has  con- 
tained organic  matter.  As  instances  may  be  taken  the  water  of 
wells  at  Eaton's  Meadows,  above  cited,  which  shows  by  its  high 
nitrates  that  the  water  originally  contained  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  form  of  organic  matter  or  ammonia,  and  the  water 
of  the  well  in  Stoughton,  which  is  likewise  high  in  nitrates.    In  the 


224  STATE  SANITATION 

first  instance  free  ammonia  is  almost  always  absent,  averaging 
0.0002  part  for  a  year,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  almost  always  pres- 
ent, averaging  0.0013  part  for  a  year.  Many  house  wells  in  close 
proximity  to  cesspools  contain  very  high  free  ammonia,  as  the 
result  of  incomplete  oxidation  of  the  ammonia  in  the  passage  of 
the  foul  water  through  the  ground. 

But  while  we  generally  refer  the  presence  of  free  ammonia  to 
imperfect  oxidation  of  organic  matter  of  house  drainage  or  sew- 
age, there  are  cases  in  which  the  ammonia  has  its  origin  in  vege- 
table organic  matter  in  the  ground  itself.  Thus  the  water  of  the 
filter-gallery  on  the  shores  of  the  storage  reservoir  of  the  Wayland 
Water  Works  always  contains  considerable  free  ammonia,  while 
the  water  in  the  reservoir  contains  very  little.  There  are  several 
cases  of  like  character  in  the  state,  and  they  are  all  associated 
with  iron  oxide  and  the  fungus  Crenothrix.  The  existence  of 
organic  matter  and  sesquioxide  of  iron  in  the  soil  together,  in  the 
absence  of  oxygen,  are  the  favorable  conditions  for  the  oxidation 
of  the  organic  matter  by  the  oxide  of  iron  (with  the  formation  of 
ammonia),  the  development  of  Crenothrix,  and  the  solution  of  the 
iron  in  the  form  of  protoxide,  which  separates  out  in  the  form  of 
iron  rust  when  the  water  is  exposed  to  the  air.  Many  wells  sunk 
in  swampy  regions  and  in  ferruginous  river  silt  show  the  same 
phenomena. 

Continuous  pumping  of  new  wells  in  these  situations  is  fre- 
quently followed  by  a  gradual  increase  of  free  ammonia  and  iron 
in  solution,  as  the  result  of  drawing  water  from  these  ferruginous 
organic  deposits.  The  odor  of  these  waters  is  often  disagreeable 
from  dissolved  sulphuretted  and  carburetted  hydrogen. 

The  water  from  deep  artesian  wells  not  infrequently  contains 
considerable  free  ammonia.  Its  origin  is  not  always  known,  but 
the  topographical  and  geological  conditions  preclude  the  possibility 
of  this  free  ammonia  having  any  connection  with  sewage  pollu- 
tion. This  ammonia  in  some  cases  is  associated  with  coal  deposits, 
which  always  contain  nitrogen.  Other  geological  formations  also 
contain  organic  matters,  and  may  give  rise  to  ammonia.  There  is 
no  free  oxygen  in  deep  waters,  and  consequently  no  possibility  of 
the  ammonia  becoming  oxidized  to  nitrates. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         225 

Rainwater  always  contains  considerable  ammonia  which  it 
washes  out  of  the  atmosphere.  A  sample  collected  at  Lawrence, 
October,  1888,  had  0.0414  part,  and  a  sample  of  snow  collected  at 
Jamaica  Plain,  Boston,  December,  1887,  0.0258  part,  per  100,000. 
The  atmosphere  of  cities  contains  much  more  ammonia  or  other 
impurities  than  in  the  open  country,  and  the  rain  or  snow  first 
falling  is  always  the  most  impure. 

Rainwater  stored  in  cisterns  generally  retains  its  free  ammonia. 

Nitrites 

Nitrous  acid  (forming  nitrites  when  combined  with  bases  such 
as  potash,  soda  or  lime)  is  an  intermediate  product  of  oxidation  of 
the  nitrogen  of  ammonia.  In  unpolluted  surface  waters  it  is 
generally  absent,  or  present  only  in  very  minute  amount,  rarely 
exceeding  a  yearly  average  of  0.0002  part  per  100,000.  In  waters 
which  receive  sewage,  or  highly  nitrogenous  manufacturing  refuse, 
however,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrites  is  con- 
siderably higher.  The  average  for  Horn  Pond  was,  for  1 891, 0.0009 
part,  for  Abbajona  River  0.0021  part,  for  Mystic  Lake  0.0012 
part,  for  the  Blackstone  River  below  Worcester  0.0032  part,  and 
for  the  Neponset  River  at  Hyde  Park,  during  1887-89,  0.0082 
part,  per  100,000.  High  nitrites  in  a  surface  water,  say  above 
0.0005  part,  together  with  high  free  ammonia,  is  an  evidence  of 
considerable  sewage  pollution. 

In  good  ground  waters  nitrites  are  always  absent.  When 
nitrogen  is  present  in  this  form  in  a  ground  water  it  is  an  evidence 
that  the  oxidizing  capacity  of  the  earth  through  which  the  water 
percolates  is  insufficient  to  oxidize  completely  the  nitrogen  it 
contains.  As  in  the  case  of  surface  waters,  coincident  high  nitrites 
and  ammonia  in  a  ground  water  point  to  pollution  by  sewage  or 
house  drainage,  which  has  not  been  completely  purified  hy 
filtration. 

Nitrates 

Nitric  acid  is  the  completely  oxidized  form  of  nitrogen.  In 
waters  it  is  combined  with  alkalies  or  with  lime,  forming  nitrates. 
Potassium  nitrate  is  ordinary  saltpetre.  One  might  expect  that 
this  mineralized   condition  of  nitrogen  would   accumulate  in 


226  STATE  SANITATION 

waters.  But,  like  ammonia,  it  is  a  plant  food,  and  in  surface 
waters  it  is  quickly  taken  up  by  growing  plants.  Hence,  in  good 
unpolluted  ponds  and  reservoirs  the  nitrates  are  always  low  and 
often  absent.  They  are  lower  in  the  warmer  months,  when  the 
vegetation  is  most  active.  Middleton  Pond,  an  unpolluted  body 
of  water,  had  an  average  contents  of  nitrogen  as  nitrates  during 
1891  of  0.0053  part  per  100,000,  the  highest  amount  being  0.0200 
part  in  March;  in  September  and  October  nitrates  were  entirely 
absent  in  this  water.  In  Horn  Pond,  which  is  highly  polluted, 
the  average  contents  of  nitrates  were  in  1891  0.0502  part,  the 
highest,  o.iooo  part,  occurring  in  January,  and  the  lowest,  0.0050 
part,  in  August.  Stacy's  Brook,  in  Swampscott,  a  very  highly 
polluted  stream,  had  an  average  of  0.1149  nitrates  for  two  years, 
the  highest  being  0.4000  part. 

In  unpolluted  ground  waters  the  nitrates  are  also  very  low. 
The  source  of  nitrates  in  these  waters  is  decomposing  surface 
vegetation.  Vegetable  matter,  such  as  leaves,  grasses,  mosses 
and  peat,  are  not  highly  nitrogenous,  and,  moreover,  decompose 
very  slowly.  The  ammonia  and  nitrates  are  largely  taken  up  by 
the  roots  of  plants,  and  but  little  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates 
penetrates  into  the  ground  water.  A  good  illustration  is  found  in 
the  water  of  the  well  of  the  Mansfield  Water  Works,  in  which  the 
average  of  four  determinations  for  a  year  gave  only  0.0083  part  of 
nitrogen  as  nitrates,  the  lowest  being  0.0050  part  and  the  highest 
0.0120  part,  per  100,000.  In  striking  contrast  to  this  is  the  water 
of  wells  situated  in  populous  regions,  in  which  the  drainage  from 
houses  and  cesspools  is  oxidized  in  its  passage  through  the  ground, 
and  the  nitrates  accumulate  in  the  ground  water.  The  amount 
of  nitrogen  as  nitrates  in  the  water  of  the  wells  at  Eaton's 
Meadows  is  about  0.5000  part,  and  is  remarkably  constant.  The 
nitrates  in  the  well  at  Stoughton  are  still  higher,  namely,  0.8280 , 
part,  and  the  spring  waters  of  Everett  contain  from  0.4000  to 
1. 1 500  parts  per  100,000.  Nitrates  when  present  in  these  large 
amounts  represent  considerable  previous  pollution  of  the  water 
by  sewage  (or  its  equivalent  in  house  drainage) ;  but  as  far  as  the 
nitrates  themselves  are  concerned  they  indicate  complete  oxida- 
tion of  organic  matter  to  harmless  mineral  matter.    When  high 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         227 

nitrates  are  associated  with  free  ammonia  or  with  nitrites,  it  is  an 
evidence  that  the  oxidation  of  organic  matter  is  incomplete. 

The  effect  of  exposing  water  high  in  nitrates  to  light  in  open 
reservoirs  has  already  been  referred  to.  The  rapid  growth  of  algae 
which  takes  place  under  these  conditions  is  generally  accompanied 
by  disagreeable  tastes  and  odors. 

Chlorine 

It  has  been  found  within  the  State  of  Massachusetts  that  the 
amount  of  chlorine  (indicating  the  amount  of  common  salt)  in 
waters  of  streams  and  ponds  in  uninhabited  drainage  areas  is 
tolerably  constant  in  each  locality.  This  amount  decreases  from 
the  seaboard  westward,  and  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  chlorine  in  the  unpolluted  waters  of  Massachusetts  has 
its  source  in  the  sea,  and  is  carried  inland  by  easterly  winds.  By 
placing  on  the  map  of  the  state  the  amount  of  chlorine  normally 
present  in  its  unpolluted  waters,  and  then  connecting  the  points 
of  equal  amounts,  lines  of  like  chlorine  contents  are  obtained 
which  are  called  isochlors.  In  the  volume  of  "  Examination  of 
Water  Supplies,"  1890,  and  in  the  Twenty-second  Annual  Report 
of  the  Board,  this  map  is  given.  From  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
waters  near  the  coast  contain  normally  about  0.65  part  of  chlorine 
per  100,000,  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  the  amount 
sinks  to  less  than  o.io  part. 

The  application  of  this  map  as  a  test  of  pollution  is  very  simple. 
Having  determined  the  amount  of  chlorine  in  a  water,  this  is  com- 
pared with  the  amount  which  the  normal  or  unpolluted  waters  of 
the  region  contain.  Any  considerable  excess  above  this  normal 
is  an  evidence  and  measure  of  the  amount  of  pollution,  which 
directly  or  indirectly,  the  water  has  received. 

In  the  case  of  the  nitrogen  compounds  in  water,  it  has  been 
noted  that  they  may  undergo  many  transformations,  but  with 
common  salt  there  is  no  change  in  its  amount  or  character,  either 
in  surface  or  ground  waters.  A  highly  polluted  water  may  be 
completely  purified  by  filtration  through  the  groimd,  but  the 
chlorine  remains  to  tell  the  tale  of  its  origin.  High  nitrates  in 
ground  waters  are  always  accompanied  by  an  amount  of  chlorine 


2  28  STATE  SANITATION 

which  is  much  above  the  normal.  A  fuller  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject of  normal  chlorine  may  be  found  in  the  volume  on  the 
"Examination  of  Water  Supplies,"  pages  542-545,  679-682. 

Oxygen  Consumed 

When  a  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  is  added  to  a  water 
containing  organic  matter,  a  certain  amount  will  be  decolorized, 
showing  that  the  permanganate  has  parted  with  some  of  its 
oxygen  in  oxidizing  the  carbon  of  the  organic  matter.  There  are 
various  methods  of  conducting  this  process;  the  one  used  in  the 
work  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  that  known  as  Kubel's,  in 
which  the  water  is  boiled  with  the  permanganate  for  a  definite 
time,  about  five  minutes.  The  amount  of  oxygen  that  the 
permanganate  gives  up  under  these  conditions  is  recorded  as  the 
"  oxygen  consumed  "  by  the  organic  matter  in  the  water.  It  is 
only  the  carbon  of  the  organic  matter  that  is  thus  oxidized,  and 
only  an  indeterminate  amount  of  this  carbon.  Different  organic 
compounds  behave  very  differently  when  thus  treated,  and  the 
determination  has  therefore  no  precise  value.  It  is  mainly  in 
comparing  waters  of  the  same  character,  or  in  comparing  sewage 
or  other  polluted  liquids  with  the  effluents  derived  from  their 
purification,  that  it  has  its  principal  value.  The  determination 
is  also  of  value  as  applied  to  well  waters.  A  good  ground  water 
seldom  has  a  higher  "  oxygen  consumed  "  than  o.oioo  part  per 
100,000.  When  it  is  considerably  more  than  this,  it  indicates 
carbonaceous  impurity  in  the  water. 

Hardness 

The  hardness  of  a  water,  as  expressed  in  a  water  analysis,  is  the 
amount  of  soap-curdling  substance  equivalent  to  a  like  amount  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  Thus  a  hardness  of  two  means  that  the  water 
has  a  hardness  which  would  be  produced  by  two  parts  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  100,000  of  water.  High  hardness  in  a  water  is 
ordinarily  caused  by  lime  and  magnesia  which  the  water  has 
dissolved  from  rocks,  or  by  the  infiltration  of  sea  water  which  also 
contains  lime  and  magnesia.  In  localities  where  the  hardness 
could  not  be  derived  from  these  sources  it  has  its  origin  probably 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         229 

in  sewage  contamination.  Unpolluted  waters  in  Massachusetts, 
except  in  the  extreme  western  portion,  have  a  hardness  of  five- 
tenths  to  two  parts. 

Iron 

It  was  mentioned  above  in  connection  with  free  ammonia  that 
many  ground  waters  contain  iron  in  sufficient  amount  to  produce 
a  rusty  precipitate  when  the  water  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  the 
iron  oxidized.  This  amount  of  iron  unfits  a  water  for  domestic 
use.  Surface  waters  rarely  contain  much  iron  in  solution.  The 
brown  swampy  waters  contain  usually  the  most.  When  these 
waters  are  bleached  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  iron  is  precipi- 
tated; but  under  ordinary  circumstances  this  does  not  take  place. 
When  a  ground  water  contains  0.0500  part  of  metallic  iron  per 
100,000  in  solution,  it  will  generally  precipitate  on  standing.  The 
determination  is  of  special  importance  in  the  case  of  new  ground 
water  supplies,  for  a  constant  increase,  on  continued  pumping, 
even  though  the  amount  may  be  very  small  at  first,  points  to  a 
time  when  the  amount  of  iron  will  become  excessive. 

Some  ground  waters  contain  also  considerable  manganese, 
which  is  dissolved  from  the  ground  under  the  same  conditions  that 
cause  the  solution  of  iron. 

Color 

The  color  of  surface  waters  is  mainly  due  to  organic  coloring 
matter  which  the  water  has  dissolved  from  leaves,  grasses,  mosses, 
peat,  etc.,  particularly  where  the  water  flows  sluggishly  through 
swamps.  The  standard  of  measurement  has  been  described  in  the 
Methods  of  Analysis,  in  the  volume  on  the  "  Examination  of  Water 
Supplies."  The  average  color  of  Boston  water  is  about  0.35,  of 
New  Bedford  water  1.36,  of  Wenham  Lake  0.05,  of  the  Plymouth 
ponds  0.0.  Groundwater  is  ordinarily  colorless.  A  notable  excep- 
tion is  the  dark  brown  water  from  wells  in  Provincetown,  which 
penetrate  a  peaty  layer  under  the  sand.  Ground  water  containing 
iron  in  solution  acquires  a  reddish-brown  color  when  the  iron 
begins  to  oxidize.  The  water  under  these  conditions  assumes  a 
milky  appearance.  Ultimately,  however,  this  very  fine  suspended 
iron  oxide  separates  out,  and  the  water  becomes  again  colorless. 


230  STATE  SANITATION 

Odor 

The  cause  of  the  odor  in  waters  had  a  full  discussion  in  the 
volume  on  "  Examination  of  Water  Supplies."  Some  further  facts 
have  been  obtained  since  that  volume  appeared,  but  our  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  is  far  from  being  as  full  as  we  could  wish.  A 
notable  addition  to  the  subject  will  be  found  in  the  Twenty- 
third  Annual  Report  of  the  Board,  in  Mr.  Calkins'  article  on 
Uroglena,  an  infusorian  which  communicates  a  decided  oily  odor 
to  waters,  and  is  much  more  abundant  in  ponds  than  has  been 
generally  supposed.  There  is  now  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  its 
characteristic  odor,  especially  when  water  containing  it  is  heated. 

The  fishy  odor  so  often  complained  of  in  surface  waters  is 
generally  due  to  infusoria.  The  diatom,  Asterionella,  is  also  easily 
recognized  by  its  characteristic  aromatic  odor,  when  present  in 
considerable  amount.^ 

Turbidity  and  Sediment 

The  permanent  turbidity  and  sediment  of  a  water  are  observed 
in  the  large  clear  white  glass  bottles  in  which  the  water  is  collected, 
after  standing  over  night.  The  character  of  the  turbidity, 
whether  floating  algae  or  clayey  matter,  or  the  milkiness  which 
occurs  in  water  containing  much  iron  or  sewage,  is  noted,  and 
also  its  amount.  The  amount  and  character  of  the  sediment  on 
the  bottom  of  the  bottle  is  also  recorded,  —  whether  earthy^ 
flocculent,  fibrous,  etc. 

Residue  on  Evaporation 

When  water  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  a  solid  residue  remains, 
which  consists  of  the  matters,  mineral  or  organic,  which  were  dis- 
solved in  the  water,  and  also  the  suspended  matters,  if  the  water 
had  not  previously  been  filtered.  In  good  ground  waters  this 
residue  is  white.  In  surface  waters  the  residue  may  be  more  or 
less  brown  from  dissolved  organic  matter.  If  this  brown  residue 
is  heated  to  dull  redness  under  carefully  controlled  conditions 

^  An  article  in  a  subsequent  portion  of  this  volume  by  Mr.  Calkins  treats  at 
length  of  the  connection  between  the  odors  of  waters  and  the  organisms  they  contain. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  WATER  ANALYSES         231 

(see  Methods  of  Analysis,  in  "  Examination  of  Water  Supplies," 
1890),  the  organic  matter  is  burned  off,  and  this  "  loss  on  igni- 
tion "  represents  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  water.  It 
is  only  an  approximate  determination  at  the  best,  but  not  without 
value  with  soft  surface  waters.  This  "  loss  on  ignition  "  is  not 
obtained  with  ground  waters,  as  the  result  would  be  meaningless 
as  a  determination  of  organic  matter. 

The  residue  after  burning  off  the  organic  matter  in  surface 
waters  is  the  fixed  residue,  or  total  contents  of  mineral  matter  in 
the  water.  In  ground  waters  the  residue  on  evaporation,  without 
ignition,  is  recorded  as  the  total  mineral  matter. 


XXIII 

SOME  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS, 

WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THEIR 

USE  IN  FILTRATION 

By  Allen  Hazen 

[It  was  Mr.  Hazen's  work  at  Lawrence  which  established  the  methods  of  sand 
analysis  and  sand  rating  now  almost  universally  used.  To  him  is  due  the  use  of  the 
terms  "Effective  Size"  and  "Uniformity  Coefficient."  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Re- 
port, 1892,  p.  539.—  G.  C.  W.] 

The  experiments  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  under 
the  direction  of  Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  have  necessitated  many- 
investigations  in  regard  to  the  physical  properties  of  filtering 
materials.  The  following  is  a  brief  account  of  some  of  the 
methods  of  analysis  devised  in  the  course  of  these  investigations, 
together  with  the  more  important  results  obtained. 

Method  of  Analysis 

A  knowledge  of  the  sizes  of  the  sand  grains  forms  the  basis  of 
many  of  the  computations.  This  information  is  obtained  by 
means  of  mechanical  analyses.  The  sand  sample  is  separated 
into  portions  having  grains  of  definite  sizes,  and  from  the  weight 
of  the  several  portions  the  relative  quantities  of  grains  of  any  size 
can  be  computed. 

Collection  of  Samples 

In  shipping  and  handhng,  samples  of  sands  are  best  kept  in  their 
natural  moist  condition,  as  there  is  then  no  tendency  to  separation 
into  portions  of  unequal-sized  grains.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  different  materials  be  mixed  in  the  same  sample.  If  the 
material  under  examination  is  not  homogeneous,  samples  of  each 
grade  should  be  taken  in  separate  bottles,  with  proper  notes 
in  regard  to  location,  quantity,  etc.  Eight-ounce  wide-necked 
bottles  are  most  convenient  for  sand  samples,  but  with  gravels  a 
larger  quantity  is  often  required.  Duplicate  samples  for  com- 
parison after  obtaining  the  results  of  analyses  are  often  useful. 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS  233 

Separation  into  Portions  having  Grains  of  Definite  Sizes 

Three  methods  are  employed  for  particles  of  different  sizes,  — 
hand  picking  for  the  stones,  sieves  for  the  sands  and  water 
elutriation  for  the  extremely  fine  particles.  Ignition,  or  deter- 
mination of  albuminoid  ammonia,  might  be  added  for  determining 
the  quantity  of  organic  matter,  which,  as  a  matter  of  convenience, 
is  assumed  to  consist  of  particles  less  than  o.oi  milhmeter  in 
diameter. 

The  method  of  hand  picking  is  ordinarily  applied  only  to 
particles  which  remain  on  a  sieve  two  meshes  to  an  inch.  The 
stones  of  this  size  are  spread  out  so  that  all  are  in  sight,  and  a 
definite  number  of  the  largest  are  selected  and  weighed.  The 
diameter  is  calculated  from  the  average  weight  by  the  method  to 
be  described,  while  the  percentage  is  reckoned  from  the  total 
weight.  Another  set  of  the  largest  remaining  stones  is  then 
picked  out  and  weighed  as  before,  and  so  on  until  the  sample  is 
exhausted.  With  a  little  practice  the  eye  enables  one  to  pick  out 
the  largest  stones  quite  accurately. 

With  smaller  particles  this  process  becomes  too  laborious,  on 
account  of  the  large  number  of  particles,  and  sieves  are  therefore 
used  instead.  The  sand  for  sifting  must  be  entirely  free  from 
moisture,  and  is  ordinarily  dried  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature 
somewhat  above  the  boiling  point.  The  quantity  taken  for 
analysis  should  rarely  exceed  100-200  grams.  The  sieves  are 
made  from  carefully  selected  brass-wire  gauze,  having,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  square  and  even-sized  meshes.  The  frames  are  of 
metal,  fitting  into  each  other  so  that  several  sieves  can  be  used  at 
once  without  loss  of  material.  It  is  a  great  convenience  to  have  a 
mechanical  shaker,  which  will  take  a  series  of  sieves  and  give  them 
a  uniform  and  sufficient  shaking  in  a  short  time;  but  without 
this  good  results  can  be  obtained  by  hand  shaking.  A  series 
which  has  proved  very  satisfactory  has  sieves  with  approximately 
2,  4,  6,  10,  20,  40,  70,  100,  140,  and  200  meshes  to  an  inch;  but 
the  exact  numbers  are  of  no  consequence,  as  the  actual  sizes  of 
the  particles  are  relied  upon,  and  not  the  number  of  meshes  to 
an  inch. 


234  STATE  SANITATION 

It  can  be  easily  shown  by  experiment  that  when  a  mixed  sand 
is  shaken  upon  a  sieve  the  smaller  particles  pass  first,  and  as  the 
shaking  is  continued  larger  and  larger  particles  pass,  until  the 
limit  is  reached  when  almost  nothing  will  pass.  The  last  and 
largest  particles  passing  are  collected  and  measured,  and  they 
represent  the  separation  of  that  sieve.  The  size  of  separation  of 
a  sieve  bears  a  tolerably  definite  relation  to  the  size  of  the  mesh, 
but  the  relation  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  owing  to  the  irregular- 
ities in  the  meshes  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  finer  sieves  are 
woven  on  a  different  pattern  from  the  coarser  ones,  and  the 
particles  passing  the  finer  sieves  are  somewhat  larger  in  propor- 
tion to  the  mesh  than  is  the  case  with  the  coarser  sieves.  For 
these  reasons  the  sizes  of  the  sand  grains  are  determined  by 
actual  measurements,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  mesh  of  the 
sieve. 

It  has  not  been  found  practicable  to  extend  the  sieve  separa- 
tions to  particles  below  o.io  millimeter  in  diameter  (correspond- 
ing to  a  sieve  with  about  200  meshes  to  an  inch),  and  for  such 
particles  elutriation  is  used.  The  portion  passing  the  finest  sieve 
contains  the  greater  part  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  sample,  with 
the  exception  of  roots  and  other  large  undecomposed  matters, 
and  it  is  usually  best  to  remove  this  organic  matter  by  ignition  at 
the  lowest  possible  heat  before  proceeding  to  the  water  separa- 
tions. The  loss  in  weight  is  regarded  as  organic  matter,  and 
calculated  as  below  o.oi  millimeter  in  diameter.  In  case  the 
mineral  matter  is  decomposed  by  the  necessary  heat,  the  ignition 
must  be  omitted,  and  an  approximate  equivalent  can  be  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  albuminoid  ammonia  of  the  sample  by  50.^ 
In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  deduct  an  equivalent  amount  from 
the  other  fine  portions,  as  otherwise  the  analyses  when  expressed 
in  percentages  would  add  up  to  more  than  one  hundred. 

Five  grams  of  the  ignited  fine  particles  are  put  in  a  beaker  90 
millimeters  high,  and  holding  about  230  cubic  centimeters.  The 
beaker  is  then  nearly  filled  with  distilled  water  at  a  temperature 
of  20°  C,  and  thoroughly  mixed  by  blowing  into  it  air  through  a 

1  The  method  of  making  this  determination  was  given  in  the  American  Chemical 
Journal,  vol.  12,  p.  427. 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS  235 

glass  tube.  A  larger  quantity  of  sand  than  5  grams  will  not 
settle  uniformly  in  the  quantity  of  water  given,  but  less  can  be 
used  if  desired.  The  rapidity  of  settlement  depends  upon  the 
temperature  of  the  water,  so  that  it  is  quite  important  that  no 
material  variation  in  temperature  should  occur.  The  mixed  sand 
and  water  is  allowed  to  stand  for  fifteen  seconds,  when  most  of 
the  supernatant  hquid,  carrying  with  it  the  greater  part  of  the 
particles  less  than  0.08  millimeter,  is  rapidly  decanted  into  a 
suitable  vessel,  and  the  remaining  sand  is  again  mixed  with  an 
equal  amount  of  fresh  water,  which  is  again  poured  off  after 
fifteen  seconds,  carrying  with  it  most  of  the  remaining  fine 
particles.  This  process  is  once  more  repeated,  after  which  the 
remaining  sand  is  allowed  to  drain,  and  is  then  dried  and  weighed, 
and  calculated  as  above  0.08  millimeter  in  diameter.  The  finer 
decanted  sand  will  have  sufficiently  settled  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
the  coarser  parts  at  the  bottom  are  washed  back  into  the  beaker 
and  treated  with  water  exactly  as  before,  except  that  one  minute 
interval  is  now  allowed  for  settHng.  The  sand  remaining  is  cal- 
culated as  above  0.04  miUimeter,  and  the  portion  below  0.04  is 
estimated  by  difference,  as  its  direct  determination  is  very  tedious, 
and  no  more  accurate  than  the  estimation  by  difference  when 
sufficient  care  is  used. 

Determination  of  the  Sizes  of  the  Sand  Grains 

The  sizes  of  the  sand  grains  can  be  determined  in  either  of  two 
ways,  —  from  the  weight  of  the  particles  or  from  micrometer 
measurements.  For  convenience  the  size  of  each  particle  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  diameter  of  a  sphere  of  equal  volume.  When  the 
weight  and  specific  gravity  of  a  particle  are  known,  the  diameter 
can  be  readily  calculated.  The  volume  of  a  sphere  is  ^  tt  d^,  and  is 
also  equal  to  the  weight  divided  by  the  specific  gravity.  With 
the  Lawrence  materials  the  specific  gravity  is  uniformly  2.65 
within  very  narrow  limits,  and  we  have  ^  =  ^tt  d^.  Solving 
for  d  we  obtain  the  formula  d  =  o.g  yjw  when  d  is  the  diameter  of 
a  particle  in  millimeters  and  w  its  weight  in  milligrams.  As  the 
average  weight  of  particles,  when  not  too  small,  can  be  deter- 
mined with  precision,  this  method  is  very  accurate,  and  alto- 


236  STATE  SANITATION 

gether  the  most  satisfactory  for  particles  above  o.io  millimeter; 
that  is,  for  all  sieve  separations.  For  the  finer  particles  the 
method  is  inapplicable,  on  account  of  the  vast  number  of  particles 
to  be  counted  in  the  smallest  portion  which  can  be  accurately 
weighed,  and  in  these  cases  the  sizes  are  determined  by  microm- 
eter measurements.  As  the  sand  grains  are  not  spherical  or  even 
regular  in  shape,  considerable  care  is  required  to  ascertain  the 
true  mean  diameter.  The  most  accurate  method  is  to  measure 
the  long  diameter  and  the  middle  diameter  at  right  angles  to  it, 
as  seen  by  a  microscope.  The  short  diameter  is  obtained  by  a 
micrometer  screw,  focusing  first  upon  the  glass  upon  which  the 
particle  rests  and  then  upon  the  highest  point  to  be  found.  The 
mean  diameter  is  then  the  cube  root  of  the  product  of  the  three 
observed  diameters.  The  middle  diameter  is  usually  about  equal 
to  the  mean  diameter,  and  can  generally  be  used  for  it,  avoiding 
the  troublesome  measurement  of  the  short  diameters. 

The  sizes  of  the  separations  of  the  sieves  are  always  determined 
from  the  very  last  sand  which  passes  through  in  the  course  of  an 
analysis,  and  the  results  so  obtained  are  quite  accurate.  With  the 
elutriations  average  samples  are  inspected,  and  estimates  made 
of  the  range  in  size  of  particles  in  each  portion.  Some  stray  parti- 
cles both  above  and  below  the  normal  sizes  are  usually  present, 
and  even  with  the  greatest  care  the  result  is  only  an  approxima- 
tion to  the  truth;  still,  a  series  of  results  made  in  strictly  the 
same  way  should  be  thoroughly  satisfactory,  notwithstanding 
possible  moderate  errors  in  the  absolute  sizes. 

Calculation  of  Results 

When  a  material  has  been  separated  into  portions,  each  of 
which  is  accurately  weighed  and  the  range  in  the  sizes  of  grains  in 
each  portion  determined,  the  weight  of  the  particles  finer  than 
each  size  of  separation  can  be  calculated,  and  with  enough 
properly  selected  separations  the  results  can  be  plotted  in  the 
form  of  a  diagram,  and  measurements  of  the  curve  taken  for 
intermediate  points  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  This  curve 
of  results  may  be  drawn  upon  a  uniform  scale  using  the  actual 
figures  of  sizes  and  of  per  cents  by  weight,  or  the  logarithms  of  the 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS 


237 


figures  may  be  used  in  one  or  both  directions.  The  method  of 
plotting  is  not  of  vital  importance,  and  the  method  for  any  set  of 
materials  which  gives  the  most  easily  and  accurately  drawn 
curves  is  to  be  preferred.  In  the  diagram  pubhshed  last  year  the 
logarithmic  scale  was  used  in  one  direction,  but  in  many  instances 
the  logarithmic  scale  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  both  directions. 
With  this  method  it  has  been  found  that  the  curve  is  often  almost 
a  straight  line  through  the  lower  and  most  important  section,  and 
very  accurate  results  are  obtained  even  with  a  smaller  number  of 
separations. 

Examples  of  Calculation  of  Results 

Following  are  examples  of  representative  analyses,  showing  the 
method  of  calculation  used  with  the  different  methods  of  separa- 
tion employed  with  various  materials. 


Table  40 

Analysis  of  a  Gravel  by  Hand  Picking,  11,870  Grams  Taken  for 

Analysis 


Number  of  Stones  in  Portion 
(Largest  Selected  Stones) 

Total 

Weight  of 

Portion 

Grams 

Average 

Weight  of 

Stones 

Milligrams 

Estimated 

Weight  of 

Smallest 

Stones 

Milligrams 

Corre- 
sponding 
Size 

Millime- 
ters 

Total 

Weight  of 

Stones 

Smaller 

than  this 

Size 

Per  Cent 
of  Total 
Weight 
Smaller 

than  this 
Size 

10 

3,320 

1,930 

1,380 

2,200 

1,520 

1,000 

460 

40 

20 

332,000 

193,000 

138,000 

110,000 

76,000 

50,000 

23,000 

4,000 

250,000 

165,000 

1 24,000 

93,000 

64,000 

36,000 

10,000 

2,000 

56. 

49. 

45- 
41. 
36. 
30. 
20. 
II. 

11,870 

8,550 

6,620 

5,240 

3,040 

1,520 

520 

60 

20 

100. 

72. 
56. 
44. 
26 

10 

10 

20 

20 

13- 

4.4 

■5 
.2 

20 

20 

10 

Dust 

The  weight  of  the  smallest  stones  in  a  portion  given  in  the 
fourth  column  is  estimated  in  general  as  about  half-way  between 
the  average  weight  of  all  the  stones  in  that  portion  and  the 
average  weight  of  the  stones  in  the  next  finer  portion. 


238  STATE  SANITATION 

The  final  results  are  shown  by  the  figures  in  italicized  type  in 
the  last  and  third  from  the  last  columns.  By  plotting  these 
figures  (Fig.  13)  we  find  that  10  per  cent  of  the  stones  are  less 
than  35  millimeters  in  diameter,  and  60  per  cent  are  less  than  51 


1 

J 

/\ 

P 

f\ 

/ 

i 

1 

i 

/I 

/ 

1 
I 

^'d1 

/ 

i 

1 

,  .._^i 

1 

II  20  30         30       41      49    49 

DIAMETER     IN     MILLIMETERS 


Fig.  13. 


millimeters.  The  "uniformity  coefficient,"  as  described  below,  is 
the  ratios  of  these  numbers,  or  1.46,  while  the  "  effective  size  "  is 
35  millimeters. 


Analysis  of  a  Sand  by  Means  of  Sieves 

A  portion  of  the  sample  was  dried  in  a  porcelain  dish  in  an  air 
bath.  Weight  dry,  1 10.9  grams.  It  was  put  into  a  series  of  sieves 
in  a  mechanical  shaker,  and  given  one  hundred  turns  (equal  to 
about  seven  hundred  single  shakes) .  The  sieves  were  then  taken 
apart,  and  the  portion  passing  the  finest  sieve  weighed.  After 
noting  the  weight,  the  sand  remaining  on  the  finest  sieve  but 
passing  all  the  coarser  sieves  was  added  to  the  first,  and  again 
weighed,  this  process  being  repeated  until  all  the  sample  was  upon 
the  scale,  weighing  1 10.7  grams,  showing  a  loss  by  handling  of  only 
0.2  gram.    The  figures  were  as  follows:  — 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS 


239 


Table  41 


Sieve  Marked 

Size  of 
Separa- 
tion of 
this  Sieve 

Quantity 
of  Sand 
Passing 

Per  Cent 
of  Total 
Weight 

Sieve  Marked 

Size  of 
Separa- 
tion of 
this  Sieve 

Quantity 
of  Sand 
Passing 

Per  Cent 
of  Total 
Weight 

Milli- 
meters 

Grams 

MiUi- 
meters 

Grams 

190 

.105 
■135 
.182 
.320 

•S 

1-3 

4.1 

23.2 

•5 
1.2 

3-7 
21.0 

4.0 

.46 

■93 
2.04 

3-90 

56.7 

89.1 

104.6 

IIO.7 

51-2 
80.5 

94-3 

lOO.O 

20 

100 

10 

60    

6 

Plotting  the  figures  in  italicized  type  we  find  from  the  curve 
(Fig.  14)  that  10  and  60  per  cent  respectively  are  finer  than 


..^^^ — 

y^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

.2S/ 

^ 

JOS 

.162 

.3 

2 

.4 

0 

.«: 

DIAMETER     IN     MILLIMETERS 
Fig.  14. 

0.25  and  0.62  millimeter,  and  we  have  for  effective  size,  as  de- 
scribed above,  0.25,  and  for  uniformity  coefficient  2.5. 

Analysis  of  a  Fine  Material  with  Elutriation 

The  entire  sample,  74  grams,  was  taken  for  analysis.  The 
sieves  used  were  not  the  same  as  those  in  the  previous  analysis, 
and  instead  of  mixing  the  various  portions  on  the  scale  they  were 
separately  weighed.    The  sif tings  were  as  follows:  — 

Remaining  on  Sieve      10,  above  2.2  millimeters 1.5  grams 

20,      "        .98         "  7.0      " 

40,      "        .46         "  22.0      " 

70,      "        .24         "  20.2      « 

«  «  140,      "        .13         "  9.2      " 

Passing  sieve  140,  below    .13         "  14.  i      " 


240 


STATE  SANITATION 


The  14. 1  grams  passing  the  140  sieve  were  thoroughly  mixed, 
and  one- third,  4.7  grams,  taken  for  analysis.  After  ignition,  just 
below  a  red  heat  in  a  radiator,  the  weight  was  diminished  by 
0.47  gram.  The  portion  above  0.08  millimeter  and  between  0.04 
and  0.08  millimeter,  separated  as  described  above,  weighed  re- 
spectively 1.27  and  1. 7 1  grams,  and  the  portion  below  0.04  milli- 


diameter    in    millimeters 
Fig.  is. 


meter  was  estimated  by  difference  (4.7  —  (0.47  -f-  1.27  -1-  1.71)) 
to  be  1.25  grams.  Multiplying  these  quantities  by  3,  we  obtain 
the  corresponding  quantities  for  the  entire  sample,  and  the  cal- 
culation of  quantities  finer  than  the  various  sizes  can  be  made. 
(See  table  below.) 

By  plotting  the  italicized  figures,  we  find  (Fig.  15)  that  10  and 
60  per  cent  are  respectively  finer  than  0.055  and  0.46  millimeter, 
and  we  have  effective  size  0.055  millimeter  and  imiformity  coeffi- 
cient 8. 

The  Effective  Size 

As  a  provisional  basis  which  best  agrees  with  the  known  facts, 
the  size  of  grain  where  the  curve  cuts  the  10  per  cent  line  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  "  effective  size  "  of  the  material.  This  size  is 
such  that  10  per  cent  of  the  material  is  of  smaller  grains,  and  90 
per  cent  is  of  larger  grains  than  the  size  given.     The  results 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS 


241 


Table  42 


Size  of  Grain 


Weight 


Grams 


Size  of 
Largest 
Particles 


Millimeters 


Weight  of  all 
the  Finer 
Particles 


Grams 


Per  Cent  by 

Weight  of  all 

Finer 

Particles 


Above  2.20. 


46- 
24- 
13- 


.46. 
.24. 
•13- 


.04-  .OS 

.01-  .04 

Loss  on  ignition  (assumed  to 
be  less  than  o.oi  millimeter) 


1.50 
7.00 
22.00 
20.20 
9.20 
3.81 
5-13 
3-75 

1.41 


74.00 
72.50 

65-50 
43-50 
23-30 
14.10 
10.29 
5-16 

1.41 


60 
32 
19 
14 
7 

1.9 


obtained  at  Lawrence  indicate  that  the  finer  10  per  cent  have  as 
much  influence  upon  the  action  of  a  material  in  filtration  as  the 
coarser  90  per  cent.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  in  a  mixed 
material,  containing  particles  of  various  sizes,  the  water  is  forced 
to  go  around  the  larger  particles  and  through  the  finer  portions 
which  occupy  the  intervening  spaces,  and  so  it  is  this  finest 
portion  which  mainly  determines  the  frictional  resistance,  the 
capillary  attraction,  and,  in  fact,  the  action  of  the  sand  in 
almost  every  way. 

Another  important  point  in  regard  to  a  material  is  its  degree  of 
uniformity;  whether  the  particles  are  mainly  of  the  same  size,  or 
whether  there  is  a  great  range  in  their  diameters.  This  is  con- 
veniently shown  by  the  "  uniformity  coefficient,"  a  term  used  to 
designate  the  ratio  of  the  size  of  grain  which  has  60  per  cent  of  the 
sample  finer  than  itself  to  the  size  which  has  10  per  cent  finer  than 
itself.    These  sizes  are  taken  directly  from  the  curve  of  results. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  above  data  regarding  a  sand  include 
all  the  important  points  to  be  known,  or  that  further  study 
will  not  modify  or  change  the  method  of  calculation;  but,  in  the 
absence  of  better  methods,  their  use  allows  extremely  valuable 
approximate  calculations,  which  would  otherwise  be  almost 
impossible. 


242  STATE  SANITATION 

Determination  of  Open  Space  and  Water  by 

Volume 

As  it  is  often  necessary  to  make  determinations  of  open  space 
and  water  in  sands,  a  few  notes  in  regard  to  the  most  suitable 
methods  will  be  given. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  solid  particles  is  obtained  by  putting 
a  weighed  quantity  of  the  thoroughly  dry  material  into  a  narrow- 
necked  graduated  flask  of  distilled  water,  taking  great  care  that  no 
air  bubbles  are  inclosed,  and  weighing  the  displaced  water.  Very 
accurate  results  may  be  obtained  in  this  way.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  material  as  a  whole  is  obtained  by  weighing  a 
known  volume  packed  as  it  is  actually  used,  or  as  nearly  so  as 
possible.  As  the  material  is  usually  moist,  it  should  either  be 
dried  before  weighing  or  else  a  moisture  determination  made  and 
a  correction  applied.  The  open  space  is  invariably  obtained  by 
dividing  the  specific  gravity  of  the  material  as  a  whole  when  dry 
by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  solid  particles,  and  deducting  the 
quotient  from  i .  The  results  obtained  by  measuring  the  quantity 
of  water  which  can  be  put  into  a  given  volume  when  introduced 
from  below  are  invariably  too  low,  because  the  water  is  drawn 
ahead  by  capillarity,  and  air  bubbles  are  inclosed  and  remain, 
often  causing  serious  errors.  A  rough  estimate  of  the  open  space 
can  be  made  from  the  uniformity  coefficient.  Sharp-grained 
materials  having  uniformity  coefficients  below  2  have  nearly  45 
per  cent  open  space  as  ordinarily  packed;  and  sands  having 
coefficients  below  3,  as  they  occur  in  the  banks  or  artificially 
settled  in  water,  will  usually  have  40  per  cent  open  space.  With 
more  mixed  materials  the  closeness  of  packing  increases,  until, 
with  a  uniformity  coefiicient  of  6  to  8,  only  30  per  cent  open 
space  is  obtained,  and  with  extremely  high  coefiicients  almost  no 
open  space  is  left.  With  round-grained  water-worn  sands  the 
open  space  has  been  observed  to  be  from  2  to  5  per  cent  less  than 
for  corresponding  sharp-grained  sands. 

The  quantity  of  water  contained  in  sand  is  obtained  by  drying 
a  weighed  portion  in  the  usual  way.  The  volume  of  the  water  is 
reckoned  by  the  formula  V  =  sp.  gr.  ioo-m  when  sp.  gr.  is  the 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS  243 

specific  gravity  of  the  material  as  a  whole  when  dry  and  M  is  the 
per  cent  of  moisture  by  weight.  The  difference  between  this 
figure  and  the  open  space  is,  in  general,  the  air  space. 

Capillajrity 

To  determine  the  capillarity  of  a  sand  it  is  so  placed  that  it  is 
drained  at  a  defined  level,  great  care  being  taken  to  secure  a  com- 
pact packing  free  from  stratification.  Water  is  put  freely  upon  it, 
and  after  a  definite  time,  usually  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours,  sand  samples  are  taken  at  various  levels,  and  water  deter- 
minations made  as  described  above.  The  results  plotted  give  a 
curve  of  "  water  capacity."^ 

The  height  to  which  water  will  be  held  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
prevent  the  circulation  of  air  can  be  roughly  estimated  by  the 
formula  h  =^  when  h  is  the  height  in  milUmeters  and  d  the 
effective  size  of  sand  grain.  The  data  from  which  the  constant 
given  above  as  1.5  was  calculated  are  very  inadequate,  and  con- 
sequently the  formula  may  require  modification  with  more 
extended  observations. 

The  height  to  which  water  is  held  by  capillarity  is  independent 
of  temperature. 

Determination  of  Frictional  Resistance 

To  determine  the  frictional  resistance  of  a  material,  a  cylinder 
of  galvanized  iron  of  convenient  size  is  filled  with  the  material 
packed  under  conditions  as  far  as  possible  like  those  under  which 
it  is  to  be  used.  For  water  filtration  the  material  is  put  loosely  in 
position  and  settled  to  a  compact  condition  by  introducing  water 
from  below.  Stratification  must  be  carefully  avoided.  Water  is 
then  passed  through  at  definite  rates,  keeping  the  material 
covered  with  an  excess  of  water,  and  regulating  the  rate  of  flow 
by  the  faucet  at  the  bottom.  The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig. 
16)  represents  a  section  of  the  apparatus  (not  drawn  to  scale). 
The  loss  of  head  between  two  points  at  a  definite  distance  apart 
and  both  weU  within  the  material  under  examination  is  observed 

1  The  results  of  a  number  of  such  experiments  were  given  in  the  annual  report 
for  1891,  p.  432. 


244 


STATE  SANITATION 


in  glass  tubes  attached  to  pet  cocks  covered  with  fine  wire  gauze 
to  keep  back  the  material.  By  proceeding  in  this  way  we  elimi- 
nate the  loss  of  head  in  the  surface  layer  of  sand,  which  is  always 
much  greater  than  for  corresponding  material  below  the  surface, 
and  is  better  studied  by  itself.    The  friction  when  the  experiment 


OVERrt.OW> 


'\f//it'V/;**'VCVv'\*yi'*V//f:/v'-'^?Y 


LOSS  or 

jt  HEAD 


Fig.  i6. 

is  first  started  is  always  high,  because  many  air  bubbles  are 
retained  in  the  sand;  but  if  water  not  entirely  saturated  with  air 
is  applied  continuously  for  some  days  the  air  bubbles  are  absorbed 
and  constant  normal  results  are  obtained. 

Friction  or  Water  in  Sands  and  Gravels 

The  frictional  resistance  of  sand  to  water  within  certain  limits 
of  size  of  grain  and  rate  of  flow  varies  directly  as  the  rate  and  as 
the  depth  of  sand.  This  is  given  by  Piefke  ^  as  Darcy's  law.  I 
have  found  that  the  friction  also  varies  with  the  temperature, 

1  "Zeitschrift  fiir  Hygiene,"  vol.  VII,  p.  115. 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS  245 

being  twice  as  great  at  the  freezing  point  as  at  summer  heat  both 
for  coarse  and  fine  sands,  and  also  that  with  different  sands  the 
resistance  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  effective  size  of 
the  sand  grain.  It  probably  varies  also  somewhat  with  the  uni- 
formity coefficient,  but  no  satisfactory  data  are  at  hand  upon 
that  point. 
Putting  the  available  data  in  the  shape  of  a  formula,  we  have 

V  —  c  d"^  J  (o.'jo  -^  o-osO) 
where 

(V)  is  the  velocity  of  the  water  in  meters  daily  in  a  solid  column 
of  the  same  area  as  that  of  the  sand, 

(c)  is  a  constant  factor  which  present  experiments  indicate  to 

be  approximately  1,000, 

(d)  is  the  effective  size  of  sand  grain, 
(h)    is  the  loss  of  head, 

(I)     is  the  thickness  of  sand  through  which  water  passes, 

(t)     is  the  temperature  on  the  centigrade  scale  {'  ^^^o"*" '°  may 
be  substituted  for  the  last  term,  if  desired). 

The  data  at  hand  only  justify  the  appKcation  of  this  formula  to 
sands  having  a  uniformity  coefl&cient  below  5,  and  effective  size 
of  grain  o.io  to  3.00  millimeters. 

The  quantity  of  water  which  will  filter  through  a  sand  when  its 
pores  are  completely  filled  with  water  and  in  the  entire  absence 
of  clogging,  with  an  active  head  equal  to  the  depth  of  sand, 
and  at  a  temperature  of  10°  C,  forms  an  extremely  convenient 
basis  for  calculation,  and  for  convenience  is  called  the  "  maximum 
rate,"  as  it  is  approximately  equal  to  the  greatest  quantity  of 
water  which  can  be  made  to  pass  the  sand  under  ordinary  work- 
ing conditions.  Thus  a  sand  with  effective  size,  0.20  millimeter, 
has  a  maximum  rate  of  40  meters  per  day;  with  effective  size  0.30 
millimeter,  the  maximum  rate  is  90  meters  per  day,  etc. 


246 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  43 

Table  Showing  Rate  at  which  Water  will  Pass  through  Different  Sands, 
WITH  Various  Heads,  at  a  Temperature  or  10°  C. 


Effective  Size  in  Millimeters,  lo  Per  Cent  Finer  than  - 


o.io 


0.20 


0.40 


300 


.001 
.005 
.010 
.050 
.100 
.500 
1. 000 
2.000 


Meters 
per  day 

.01 

•OS 
.10 

•50 
I. 

5- 
10. 

20. 


Meters 
per  day 

.04 

,20 

40 


Meters 
per  day 

09 

45 
90 

4- SO 

9 
4S 
90 


Meters 
per  day 

.16 

.80 

1.60 

8. 

16. 

80. 

160. 

320. 


Meters 
per  day 

•2S 

1. 25 

2.50 
12.50 

25- 

125. 


Meters 
per  day 


5 
10 

SO. 
100 


Meters 
per  day 

9- 

45- 

90. 


The  effect  of  variation  in  the  temperature  is  shown  by  the 
following  table:  — 

Table  44 
Relative  Quantities  of  Water  passing  at  Different  Temperatures 


Degrees,  Centigrade. 
Degrees,  Fahrenheit. 
Quantity 


0° 

5° 

10° 

i.S° 

20° 

2.5° 

32° 

41° 

So° 

59° 

68° 

77° 

•70 

•85 

1. 00 

I-I5 

1.30 

1^45 

30" 

86° 
1.60 


For  gravels  with  effective  sizes  above  3  millimeters  the  friction 
varies  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  apphcation  of  a  general  for- 
mula very  difficult.  As  the  size  increases  beyond  this  point,  the 
velocity  with  a  given  head  does  not  increase  as  rapidly  as  the 
square  of  the  effective  size;  and  with  coarse  gravels  the  velocity 
varies  as  the  square  root  of  the  head  instead  of  directly  with  the 
head  as  in  sands.  The  influence  of  temperature  also  becomes  less 
marked  with  the  coarse  gravels. 

The  available  data  for  materials  above  3  millimeters,  which  are 
far  less  complete  than  could  be  desired,  have  been  obtained 
entirely  from  screened  gravels  with  uniformity  coefficients  from 
1.4  to  2.0,  and  at  a  temperature  of  10°  C,  or  a  little  above.    The 


PROPERTIES  OF  SANDS  AND  GRAVELS 


247 


results  obtained  were  plotted,  making  a  diagram  from  which  the 
table  given  below  has  been  prepared.  The  figures  given  in  the 
table  must  be  taken  as  provisional,  and  for  use  only  until  more 
extended  results  are  obtained. 

Table  45 

Table  Showing  Rate  at  which  Water  will  Pass  through  Different  Gra\^ls 
WITH  Various  Heads 


h 

Effective  Size  in  Millimeters,  lo 

Per  Cent  Finer  Than  — 

1 

3 

5 

8 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

3S 

40 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

Meters 
per  day 

.0005  . 

3-5 

10 

20 

30 

5° 

80 

IIO 

150 

200 

250 

.001    . 

7 

21 

41 

58 

100 

148 

205 

275 

370 

450 

.002    . 

14 

40 

78 

IIO 

190 

275 

370 

480 

590 

710 

.004    . 

27 

77 

150 

208 

350 

480 

610 

740 

870 

1,000 

.006    . 

41 

112 

207 

275 

450 

620 

780 

930 

1,090 

1,240 

.008  . 

54 

142 

252 

340 

530 

720 

900 

1,090 

1,270 

1,450 

.010    . 

67 

173 

300 

385 

610 

830 

1,030 

1,220 

1,410 

.015  . 

98 

238 

378 

480 

760 

1,030 

1,260 

1,480 

.020    . 

127 

300 

467 

580 

890 

1,180 

1,470 

.030   . 
.050  . 

i8s 
280 

400 
560 

615 
88s 

750 

1,060 

1,110 
1,490 

1,450 

.100    . 

495 

930 

1,310 

1,55° 

In  making  calculations  in  regard  to  underdrains  for  either 
sewage  or  water  filters,  or  in  regard  to  the  movements  of  ground 
waters,  there  should  be  no  perceptible  clogging  of  porous  materials 
free  from  stratification  by  a  clear  ground  water,  and  the  formulas 
given  can  be  used  with  only  a  moderate  factor  of  safety  to  cover 
possible  errors  of  sampling,  analysis,  and  errors  in  the  formulas 
themselves.  In  estimating  the  actual  capacity  of  a  filter,  so  many 
other  conditions  come  in  —  the  presence  of  air  bubbles  and 
especially  the  increased  friction  in  the  upper  layers  —  that  it  is 
impossible  to  calculate  the  practicable  rate  of  flow  by  formulas, 
and  we  can  only  safely  rely  upon  actual  results  from  known 
materials. 

The  analyses  of  the  materials  used  at  Lawrence  have  been  given 
in  previous  reports  of  the  Board  in  connection  with  the  results 


248  STATE  SANITATION 

obtained  from  them.  The  following  table  contains  the  result  of 
analyses  of  some  other  materials,  which  may  be  of  general 
interest:  — 

Table  46 

Mechanical  Analyses  of  Sands 


Effective  Size 

10  Per  Cent 

Finer  Than  — 


Uniformity 
Coefficient 


Filter  Tank  No.  i,  Lawrence,  Mass 

Filter  Tank  No.  9,  Lawrence,  Mass 

Filter  Tank  No.  2,  Lawrence,  Mass 

Sewage  filters,  Gardner,  Mass 

Sewage  filters,  Marlborough,  Mass 

Sewage  filters,  South  Framingham,  Mass 

Water  filter,  Lawrence,  Mass 

Water  filter,  Birmingham,  Eng 

Water  filter,  Southwalk  &  Vauxhall  Co.,  London,  Eng 
Water  filter,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y 


MElimeters 
.48 
.18 
.08 

.10-.24 
.12 

•35-42 
•25-30 
.27 
.29 
•25-35 


2.4 

2.0 

2.0 

6-14 

3^4 

4-5 

2^5-4-S 

1.8 

2.0 

1.8-1.9 


The  data  already  collected  clearly  show  that  a  well-selected 
material  is  essential  to  successful  filtration;  and,  with  the  method 
of  examination  and  calculation  now  proposed,  we  can  decide  with 
confidence  many  otherwise  indefinite  points,  and  thus  avoid 
unnecessary  expense  and  unsatisfactory  results  from  the  use  of 
unsuitable  or  poorly  arranged  materials. 


xxrv 

REPORT  OF  THE  JOINT  BOARD  UPON  THE 
IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER 

[This  report  was  made  by  a  joint  board  consisting  of  the  Metropolitan  Park 
Commission  and  the  State  Board  of  Health.  Following  this  report  the  construction 
of  the  Charles  River  Basin  was  begun.    Special  Report,  1894,  p.  vii.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  undersigned,  members  of  the  joint  board,  consisting  of  the 
Board  of  MetropoUtan  Park  Commissioners  and  the  State  Board 
of  Health,  to  whom  was  referred,  by  chapter  475  of  the  Acts  of 
1893,  the  investigation  of  the  sanitary  condition,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  beds,  shores  and  waters 
of  the  Charles  River,  between  Charles  River  bridge  and  the  Wal- 
tham  line  on  Charles  River,  and  for  the  removal  of  any  nuisance 
therefrom,  respectfully  submit  the  following  report:  — 

The  two  boards  named  in  the  act  met  for  organization  August 
10,  1893.  H.  P.  Walcott  was  elected  chairman  of  the  joint  board 
and  H.  S.  Carruth,  secretary.  At  a  later  date  F.  P.  Stearns,  C.E., 
was  appointed  engineer  to  the  board,  and  Messrs.  Olmsted, 
Olmsted  and  Eliot  were  asked  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  im- 
provement of  the  river,  to  submit  a  report  thereon  and  to  prepare 
a  plan  of  the  improvements  recommended.  Mr.  Eliot  had  been 
a  member  of  the  Charles  River  Improvement  Commission  ap- 
pointed under  authority  of  chapter  390  of  the  Acts  of  1891,  had 
acquired  complete  famiharity  with  the  actual  condition  of  the 
river,  and  had  made,  in  a  public  document,  valuable  suggestions 
for  its  improvement.  Dr.  Robert  W.  Greenleaf  of  Boston  was 
asked  to  make  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  district  designated  in  the 
act. 

The  members  of  the  board  have  personally  examined  the  river 
and  its  banks  at  many  times  and  under  various  conditions.  They 
have  carefully  considered  the  reports  made  to  them  by  the  experts 
employed,  and  have  reached  the  following  conclusions. 


250  STATE  SANITATION 

The  position  of  the  Charles  River,  in  its  relation  to  the  metro- 
politan district,  has  necessarily  a  very  great  influence  upon  the 
health  and  comfort  of  the  people  hving  in  its  vicinity.  So  long  as 
the  stream  was  comparatively  unpolluted  its  banks  were  occupied 
at  eligible  sites  by  dwellings  of  the  better  sort.  The  increase  of 
pollution  and  the  consequent  nuisance  occasioned  by  it  have 
driven  from  the  banks  those  who  could  afford  to  establish  new 
homes  in  more  attractive  regions,  and  the  places  of  these  have 
been  taken  by  a  population  less  sensitive  because  they  cannot 
afford  to  avoid  offensive  surroundings,  or  by  manufactories  that 
seek  the  stream  for  commercial  advantage  or  to  be  at  a  distance 
from  neighbors  hkely  to  complain  of  offensive  processes  incident 
to  the  business  carried  on.  Even  in  those  portions  of  the  river 
where  the  vast  quantities  of  salt  water  brought  in  by  the  tide  so 
far  diminish  the  degree  of  pollution  that  offensive  odors  are  not 
observed  except  at  low  tide  and  in  consequence  of  local  causes, 
and  where  some  of  the  finest  residences  of  the  Back  Bay  district 
of  the  city  of  Boston  are  to  be  found,  —  even  here  the  river  has 
ceased  to  be  a  welcome  neighbor  except  so  far  as  the  views  to  the 
distant  hills  to  the  north  and  west  are  enhanced  by  the  water  in 
the  not  too  near  foreground,  a  foreground  consisting  of  a  poorly 
kept  alleyway  behind  a  Une  of  unsightly  sheds  and  stables  situ- 
ated at  the  rear  of  the  lots  on  the  north  side  of  Beacon  Street,  a 
rude  stone  wall,  upon  which  grow  tufts  of  seaweed  and  unsightly 
grasses,  holding  as  sponges  do  the  floating  putrescible  materials 
that  come  in  contact  with  them,  and  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  at 
low  tide,  a  muddy  expanse  of  many  acres,  marred  by  rubbish  of 
every  description. 

So  many  of  the  great  cities  of  the  world  have  made  use  of  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  basins  as  sites  for  their  finest  pubHc  and  pri- 
vate buildings  and  ornamental  grounds  that  we  cannot  escape 
from  the  conviction  that  the  disinclination  to  so  use  the  Charles 
River  within  the  limits  under  consideration  rests  either  upon 
nuisances  already  in  existence  or  the  apprehension  of  danger  to 
health.  The  river  runs  through  the  very  centre  of  the  metropoHs 
and  upon  its  shores  should  naturally  be  placed  its  most  attractive 
structures,  its  monuments  and  its  finest  dwelhngs.    It  does  not 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER  251 

seem  appropriate  that  this  territory,  so  favored  by  position,  lying 
at  the  very  heart  of  our  great  city  and  upon  the  borders  of  a 
stream  not  necessarily  offensive,  should  be  condemned  to  its 
present  ignoble  and  noxious  uses.  If  any  streams  or  any  lowlands 
are  to  be  so  used  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  it  would  be  well  that 
they  should  be  as  far  as  possible  from  the  centre.  An  enumeration 
of  the  people  who  are  actually  resident  upon  the  territory  which 
lies  within  a  distance  of  two  miles  upon  either  bank  of  the  river, 
throughout  the  district  now  under  consideration,  shows  a  popu- 
lation of  not  less  than  500,000.  Here  in  the  future  will  probably 
be  found,  as  now,  the  bulk  of  the  metropohtan  population. 

The  banks  of  the  river  and  the  exposed  fiats  have  become  from 
year  to  year  more  offensive  until,  on  certain  portions  of  the  river, 
the  people  Hving  near  the  stream  have  been  exposed  to  the  dis- 
agreeable and  probably  injurious  emanations  therefrom.  So  far 
reaching  had  this  nuisance  become  that  during  the  summer  of 
1892  a  very  large  portion  of  the  territory  of  Old  Cambridge  was 
subject  to  its  influence,  and  a  petition  was  addressed  to  the  State 
Board  of  Health  signed  by  hundreds  of  householders,  and  by 
nearly  all  the  practicing  physicians  of  that  portion  of  the  city, 
praying  that  some  relief  might  be  given  from  a  condition  of  things 
beheved  to  be  positively  injurious  to  health,  and  known  to  be  so 
offensive  that  windows  had  to  be  closed  during  the  period  of  low 
tide  in  the  river. 

The  medical  profession  beheves  that  the  gases  arising  from 
decomposing  organic  materials  are  injurious  to  health ;  it  has  not 
been  proved,  however,  that  these  gases  do  produce  some  one  dis- 
tinct disease,  but  rather  that  the  continued  breathing  of  them 
lowers  the  vital  resistance  and  predisposes  the  person  exposed  to 
them  to  diseases  of  various  kinds  and  all  degrees  of  severity.  But 
even  if  the  physicians  are  in  error  in  beHeving  such  emanations 
to  be  a  danger  to  health,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  owners  of 
lands  or  houses  on  the  borders  of  such  foul  smelling  streams  suffer 
a  pecuniary  loss  in  the  diminished  value  of  their  property,  a  loss 
from  which  they  should  be  protected  if  it  be  practicable  to  do  so. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  thought  that  the  steady  progress  of 
malaria  in  the  valley  of  the  Charles  has  had  a  very  close  connec- 


252  STATE  SANITATION 

tion  with  the  increasing  pollution  of  the  stream;  the  careful 
examination  into  this  subject  by  Dr.  Greenleaf  does  not  show, 
however,  that  the  cases  of  malarial  fever  have  been  in  such  near 
connection  with  the  river  as  to  make  it  probable  that  the  con- 
taminations of  its  waters  have  had  any  direct  influence  upon  the 
spread  of  the  disease.  Dr.  Greenleaf,  in  the  course  of  a  house-to- 
house  survey  of  the  district  adjoining  the  river,  did,  indeed, 
discover  cases  of  malarial  fever,  but  a  satisfactory  explanation  of 
their  occurrence  was  almost  invariably  found,  either  in  local 
conditions  not  dependent  upon  the  state  of  the  river,  or  else  by 
exposure  of  the  affected  individuals  in  locahties  known  to  have 
become  malarial  in  recent  years.  His  observations  lead  to  the 
same  conclusions  in  this  inquiry  that  other  competent  authorities 
have  drawn  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  that  the  most  important 
condition  to  be  sought  for  defence  against  the  malarial  infection 
is  a  thorough  drainage  of  the  soil,  together  with  a  maintenance  of 
the  water  contained  therein  at  an  unchanged  level. 

Two  plans  occur  to  us  for  the  reHef  of  the  conditions  thus  briefly 
sketched,  assuming  in  both  cases  that  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
System,  now  nearly  completed,  will  remove  the  more  serious 
forms  of  pollution :  — 

(i)  To  dredge  all  flats  now  exposed,  and  to  continue  the  em- 
bankment constructed  in  the  substantial  and  attractive  form  used 
by  the  city  of  Boston  at  the  Charlesbank,  ultimately  carrying  this 
construction  through  the  whole  length  of  the  estuary  and  upon 
both  banks. 

(2)  To  maintain  the  water  in  the  river  through  a  greater  or  less 
length  in  its  course  at  a  permanent  high  level  by  the  construction 
of  a  dam. 

The  objections  to  the  first  plan  are  these:  While  the  river 
would  rise  and  fall  against  a  vertical  wall,  thus  exposing  the 
smallest  possible  surface  at  the  banks,  even  this  surface  would 
soon  become  defaced  by  growths  more  or  less  offensive,  as  has 
already  happened  to  the  recently  constructed  walls  in  the  Charles 
River  Basin.  The  embankment  would  be  many  miles  in  length, 
would  entail  very  extensive  filHngs  of  lowlands  in  order  to  render 
such  lands  available  for  any  public  use  or  profitable  private 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER      253 

occupation,  and  the  general  effect  would  not  be  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  except  when  the  water  is  at  or  near  high  tide,  and  lastly,  the 
difficulties  of  the  construction  of  walls  on  account  of  poor  founda- 
tion and  their  great  expense  would  preclude  for  the  present  at 
least  the  building  of  them. 

Having  a  due  regard  to  the  imperative  need  of  some  measure 
of  rehef  in  this  valley,  it  does  not  seem  safe  to  longer  delay  the 
adoption  of  a  sufficient  remedy,  and  we,  therefore,  recommend  the 
second  plan,  the  erection  of  a  dam  high  enough  to  keep  even  ex- 
treme tides  out  of  the  basin  and  the  maintenance  of  the  water  at 
a  permanent  level,  in  accordance  with  the  plan  of  our  engineer, 
F.  P.  Stearns,  C.E.,  herewith  presented. 

The  place  selected  for  the  dam  is  about  600  feet  above 
Craigie's  bridge,  where  the  river  is  not  more  than  1,100  feet 
wide.  The  details  of  this  structure  have  been  so  thoroughly 
considered  that  we  confidently  beheve  that  it  will  answer  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  designed,  the  maintenance  of  a  nearly 
permanent  level  at  all  times,  and  no  greater  interference  with 
commerce  than  would  be  produced  by  the  operation  of  a  draw- 
bridge, —  indeed,  not  so  much,  should  the  drawbridge  happen 
to  He  on  the  line  of  a  railroad.  Provision  has  been  made  for  a  lock 
in  the  dam  capable  of  receiving  the  largest  vessels  used  upon  the 
river;  and  it  is  obvious  that  commerce  directed  to  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  stream  would  gain  much  from  the  power  to  ascend  the 
river  independently  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide.  Vessels  which 
might  have  occasion  to  be  moored  at  the  wharves  on  the  river 
above  the  dam  would  find  in  this  new  condition  of  things  the 
great  advantage  of  floating  at  all  times.  How  great  this  gain 
would  be  can  be  understood  when  it  is  stated  that  the  river  bed  is 
practically  exposed  at  the  United  States  Arsenal  at  Watertown 
at  low  tide. 

Estimates  have  been  made  for  a  dam  to  be  100  feet  in  width, 
and  there  would  thus  be  provided  a  foundation  for  another 
roadway  into  the  city  of  Boston  from  East  Cambridge  and  the 
country  beyond  of  permanent  character,  a  means  of  approach  to 
the  city  hkely  to  be  much  needed  when  the  time  comes  for  the 
reconstruction  of  Craigie's  bridge. 


2  54  STATE  SANITATION 

The  landscape  architect  would  also  be  able  to  connect  this 
structure  with  the  pubhc  lands  on  both  banks  of  the  river  by  such 
additional  fillings  and  rounding  of  the  corners  as  would  materially 
increase  the  area  of  these  grounds  and  add  new  features  of 
attraction. 

We  cannot  convince  ourselves  that  the  harbor  will  be  notice- 
ably injured  by  the  loss  of  the  large  quantities  of  water  dis- 
charged by  the  outgoing  tide.  The  opinions  of  the  experts,  who 
have  from  time  to  time  examined  the  harbor,  have  in  recent  years 
been  considerably  modified,  possibly  in  view  of  the  unimpaired 
value  of  the  harbor,  notwithstanding  the  great  decrease  in  the 
water  areas  of  the  Charles  River  and  other  basins.  If  the  river 
below  the  site  of  the  dam  is  only  to  serve  the  purpose  of  convey- 
ing the  waters  of  the  Charles  and  Miller's  rivers  to  the  sea,  such 
diminution  of  its  area  as  has  already  taken  place  will  be  of  Httle 
consequence,  for  a  smaller  channel  than  the  present  would  be 
sufficient  to  carry  all  that  the  Charles  River  alone  could  ever 
empty  into  it. 

The  more  certain  formation  of  ice  on  the  basin  created  by  the 
dam  ought  not,  in  the  absence  of  any  considerable  amount  of 
winter  commerce  on  the  Charles,  to  be  anything  but  favorable  to 
the  use  of  this  stretch  of  several  miles  of  river  for  skating,  one  of 
the  best  of  winter  exercises  and  sports.  The  probable  more  ready 
freezing  of  the  channel  of  Boston  Harbor  below  the  dam  would 
be  an  inconvenience  if  the  constant  movement  of  tugs  and  ferry 
boats  were  not  quite  certain  to  break  up  the  ice  almost  as  soon 
as  formed. 

The  fear  is  often  expressed  that  such  basins  as  this  may  be- 
come, by  reason  of  an  insufficient  current  and  the  accumulation 
of  organic  matter  in  them,  sources  of  nuisance  and  a  menace  to 
the  pubhc  health.  The  statistics  contained  in  the  engineer's 
report  show  that  there  will  be  a  very  considerable  movement  of 
this  sheet  of  water,  and  with  the  improvement  in  the  quaHty 
likely  to  follow  the  operation  of  the  new  metropoHtan  sewer  but 
Httle  danger  of  such  contamination  of  the  water  or  such  accumu- 
lation of  filth  on  the  bottom  of  the  basin  as  could  produce  offen- 
sive smells  or  conditions  dangerous  to  health.    But  should  the 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER  255 

unexpected,  nevertheless,  happen,  the  openings  in  the  dam  would 
easily  allow  of  the  admission  of  such  quantities  of  salt  water  as 
would  keep  the  basin  in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  condition  by 
establishing  in  it  a  very  considerable  circulation  at  each  tide.    We 
are  fortunately,  however,  not  without  examples  of  basins  quite 
similar  to  this,  situated  also  in  the  midst  of  large  populations,  and 
in  the  most  conspicuous  example,  the  world-renowned  Alster 
Basin,  the  water  park  of  the  city  of  Hamburg,  there  is  no  means  of 
introducing  any  water  beyond  that  flowing  in  the  comparatively 
insignificant  Alster.    This  basin  is  very  shallow  and  has  a  muddy 
bottom,  but  is  surrounded  by  some  of  the  best  private  houses  of 
this  flourishing  and  wealthy  port,  and  the  water  surface  of  the 
basin  and  its  shores  constitute  the  most  frequented  places  of 
resort  in  the  city.    During  the  terrible  cholera  epidemic  of  1892, 
when  Hamburg  suffered,  as  few  European  cities  ever  have  suf- 
fered, from  this  pestilence,  the  wards  in  which  lie  the  Alster 
Basins  showed  the  lowest  death-rates  in  the  city.    We  do  not 
intend  to  say  that  cholera  spreads  only  where  there  is  filth,  but 
it  is  true  that  the  conditions  among  which  it  finds  its  widest 
extension  are  those  of  unsanitary  surroundings. 

There  is  no  question  probably  in  the  mind  of  any  sanitary 
observer  that  a  river  of  moderately  pure  water  flowing  at  a  con- 
stant level  between  clean  banks  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  a 
similar  stream  which  is  subject  to  a  rise  and  fall  of  many  feet 
twice  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  Streams  of  the  latter  description 
constantly  deposit  upon  the  banks  the  material  floating  on  the 
surface,  material  that  occasions  little  offence  while  surrounded 
and  saturated  with  water,  but  rapidly  decays  when  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  air  upon  the  shores  of  the  river. 

Whatever  care  may  be  taken  of  the  Charles  River  in  the  time 
to  come,  if  it  remain  an  estuary,  there  is  no  doubt  in  our  minds 
that  the  banks,  sloping  as  now  to  the  stream,  will  be  more  or  less 
a  nuisance;  dwellings  will,  so  far  as  possible,  not  be  erected  in  its 
neighborhood,  or,  if  they  are  built  here,  will  be  of  the  sort  which 
are  compelled  to  seek  undesirable,  consequently  cheap,  land.  A 
population  will  be  established  here  which  will  resist  most  obsti- 
nately and  naturally  the  destruction  of  their  homes,  and  one 


256  STATE  SANITATION 

more,  and  perhaps  the  greatest,  opportunity  to  permanently 
improve  the  incomparable  situation  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs 
will  have  passed  away. 

In  order  to  protect  the  low-lying  portions  of  the  territory 
within  the  valley  of  this  portion  of  the  Charles  River,  it  has 
seemed  advisable  to  us  to  make  the  permanent  level  in  this  basin 
somewhat  lower  than  that  of  ordinary  high  tides.  The  level 
which  seems  most  advantageous  is  that  of  two  feet  and  six 
inches  below  such  tides.  It  is  well  known  that  exceptionally  high 
tides  have  done  much  injury  throughout  the  estuary  of  the  river, 
both  by  flooding  and  by  interference  with  sewers,  and  we  may 
reasonably  expect  that  still  more  will  be  occasioned  on  account 
of  the  increased  occupation  of  these  lowlands  whenever  we  again 
have  such  tides  as  that  which  occurred  at  the  time  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Minot's  Ledge  Hghthouse  in  185 1,  or,  indeed,  tides  of 
much  lower  height.  The  forlorn  marshes  that  now  border  upon 
the  river  would  become,  without  the  expenditure  on  them  of  a 
dollar,  fertile  meadows,  scarcely  needing  treatment  to  become 
attractive  places  for  recreation;  and  capable,  with  treatment,  of 
becoming  scenes  of  great  beauty,  as  the  designs  of  the  landscape 
architects  so  clearly  show.  Some  soUcitude  has,  in  recent  years, 
been  manifested  in  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  piles  upon 
which  are  placed  the  foundations  of  so  many  valuable  buildings 
in  the  Back  Bay  district  of  Boston.  The  maintenance  of  a  basin 
at  a  constant  level  considerably  above  that  at  which,  by  city 
ordinance,  these  piles  are  cut  off  will  probably  increase  the 
security  of  such  substructures.  We  beheve  that  the  amount  of 
organic  or  putrescible  material  at  present  deposited  on  the  banks 
and  bed  of  the  river  need  not  present  any  serious  obstacle  to  the 
carrying  out  of  this  plan.  The  completion  of  the  whole  design 
will  be  a  matter  of  years,  the  addition  of  the  most  serious  kind 
of  pollution,  sewage,  will  cease,  probably,  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
the  narrowing  of  the  stream  in  the  present  basin  is  rapidly  going 
on,  with  consequent  diminution  of  deposit,  and  whatever  remains 
after  this  will  be  profitably  removed  to  the  banks  of  the  stream 
for  such  fillings  as  may  be  necessary  to  prepare  the  river  for  its 
new  functions. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER  257 

Whatever  plan  is  adopted  for  the  future  treatment  of  the  river, 
it  seems  to  us  essential  that  all  the  lands  indicated  on  the  plan 
presented  by  the  landscape  architects  should  be  at  once  acquired. 
The  mere  fact  that  it  was  pubHc  property  would  alone,  we  think, 
improve  the  value  of  all  the  adjoining  lands  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  make  the  purchase  a  wise  business  transaction. 

Mayor  Mathews,  in  an  inaugural  address  dehvered  in  the 
year  1891,  before  the  city  council  of  Boston,  used  the  following 
words :  — 

We  have  in  this  basin  the  opportunity  for  making  the  finest  water  park 
in  any  city  in  the  country;  an  opportunity  which  should  be  grasped  before 
it  is  too  late. 

The  eventual  solution  of  this  whole  problem  should,  I  think,  be  an  imita- 
tion of  the  plan  adopted  by  the  city  of  Hamburg,  under  similar  circum- 
stances. We  should  dam  up  the  stream  at  the  narrowest  point  between 
Charlestown  and  Boston,  and  lay  out  a  series  of  parks  and  boulevards  along 
the  basin  thus  created. 

We  have  incorporated  in  this  report  copies  of  photographs 
showing  various  aspects  of  the  Alster  Basin  in  Hamburg.  They 
tell  their  story  so  effectively  that  minute  description  is  hardly 
needed.  Hamburg  lies  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  a  distance 
of  seventy  miles  from  the  German  Ocean,  and  is  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  city  of  the  German  Empire.  The  population  of 
the  city  and  suburbs  exceeds  600,000.  The  climate  is  harsh  and 
fully  as  much  exposed  to  cold  and  disagreeable  winds  as  Boston, 
is.  The  thermometer  does  not  indicate  so  low  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture, but  the  difference  between  the  two  cities  in  this  regard  is  not 
very  great.  In  former  times  the  Alster  was  a  small  stream  fiovdng 
through  the  centre  of  the  city  and  entering  the  Elbe  at  right 
angles  to  the  latter's  course.  At  the  entrance  of  the  Alster  into 
the  Elbe  an  estuary  was  formed  which  sheltered  the  small  vessels 
engaged  in  the  commerce  of  those  days. 

With  the  growth  of  the  city  larger  and  more  convenient  docks, 
were  formed  on  the  Elbe;  and  the  formation  of  the  Alster  Basin 
was  begun  at  a  point  about  a  mile  distant  from  the  entrance  of 
the  Alster  into  the  Elbe;  dams  across  the  stream  were  constructed 
with  suitable  contrivances  for  the  passage  of  mastless  vessels. 


258  STATE  SANITATION 

Constant  improvements  have  been  going  on  in  this  water  park, 
some  the  results  of  the  needs  of  a  growing  city  and  some  from 
efforts  to  increase  the  attractions  of  the  basin  and  its  borders. 
There  are  two  basins,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  separated  by  a 
bridge.  About  this  basin  are  ranged  some  of  the  finest  of  the  pri- 
vate houses,  the  principal  hotels,  and  such  shops  as  are  usually 
found  in  the  better  quarters  of  a  city. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lower  water  park  is  treated  in  a 
formal  way  with  walls,  straight  lines  of  street,  and  rows  of  trees; 
in  the  upper  basin  walls  are  replaced  by  beaches;  the  shore  lines 
no  longer  run  parallel  to  the  streets,  and  the  trees  and  shrubbery 
are  grouped  in  effective  masses.  At  points  more  distant  from  the 
city  and  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river,  very  Httle  attempt  has 
been  made  to  improve  the  naturally  pleasing  variation  of  banks 
but  slightly  elevated  above  the  stream  and  verdant  meadows 
interspersed  with  trees,  shrubbery  and  gardens. 

We  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  evidences  of  appreciation  of 
all  these  charms  shown  by  the  Hfe  everywhere  manifest,  —  the 
little  steamer  makes  its  rounds  from  one  point  to  another  on  the 
water  park;  rowboats  are  plenty,  and  when  some  much-fre- 
quented place  of  resort  on  the  stream  is  reached,  the  popular 
enjoyment  of  it  all  should  convince  this  community  that  much 
labor  and  expense  could  be  profitably  invested  in  procuring  for 
the  metropohtan  district  the  opportunity  for  the  same  innocent 
enjoyments.  We  have  a  framework  for  such  scenes  far  superior 
to  that  possessed  by  Hamburg,  and  the  expense  of  preparation 
is  not  excessive. 

That  all  this  outdoor  life  is  not  peculiar  to  the  German  nation 
is  well  shown  by  the  illustration  of  boating  on  the  Thames. 
Nothing  of  all  this  has  hitherto  been  possible  in  the  estuary  of  the 
Charles,  although  some  suggestion  of  the  possibilities  in  this 
direction  may  be  obtained  from  the  rapidly  growing  use  of  the 
comparatively  inaccessible  fresh-water  basin  further  up  the 
stream  extending  from  Waltham  to  Riverside.  The  repulsive 
appearance  of  the  shores  of  the  estuary  at  the  lower  stages  of 
tide,  the  foul  odors  along  its  banks  and  fiats,  and  the  difficulties 
experienced  in  passing  under  the  low  bridges  at  high  tide,  have 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CHARLES  RIVER  259 

combined  to  make  boating  and  the  use  of  the  stream  by  small 
steamboats  unattractive  and,  in  a  measure,  dangerous. 

In  conclusion,  your  board  feels  that  no  treatment  of  the  Charles 
River  can  be  entirely  satisfactory  which  does  not  regard  the  con- 
dition of  the  river  above  and  in  Waltham.  At  the  boundary  of 
that  city,  by  the  terms  of  the  act  under  which  we  are  directed  to 
make  our  investigation  and  report,  our  labors  end. 

We  have  not  thought  that  it  was  necessary  to  submit  herewith 
the  drafts  of  such  legislation  as  might  seem  to  be  required  for 
carrying  out  our  recommendations.  We  are  aware  that  the  very 
serious  changes  proposed  require  the  co-operation  of  the  United 
States,  the  state  and  various  municipalities.  But  the  questions 
only  differ  in  degree  from  some  which  have  already  been  satis- 
factorily determined  by  existing  commissions  whose  organizations 
are  sufl&ciently  complete  to  enable  them  to  promptly  undertake 
the  execution  of  so  much  of  these  plans  as  it  may  seem  wise  to  the 
Commonwealth  to  enter  upon. 

Henry  P.  Walcott, 

Chairman. 

Philip  A.  Chase, 
William  B.  de  las  Casas, 
Abraham  L.  Richards, 

Board  of  Metropolitan  Park  Commissioners. 

Hiram  F.  Mills, 
Frank  W.  Draper, 
Joseph  W.  Hastings, 
Gerard  C.  Tobey, 
James  W.  Hull, 
Charles  H.  Porter, 

State  Board  of  Health. 

Boston,  Mass.,  April  27,  1894. 

Charles  F.  Adams  and  William  Chase  of  the  Metropolitan 
Park  Commission  are  absent  in  Europe. 


XXV 

REPORT  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH 
UPON  A  METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY 

By  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott 

[Report  upon  a  Metropolitan  Water  Supply,  1895,  p.  ix.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  State  Board  of  Health,  acting  under  the  authority  of  chap- 
ter 459  of  the  Acts  of  1893,  has  investigated  and  considered 
the  question  of  a  water  supply  for  the  city  of  Boston  and  its 
suburbs  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles  from  the  State  House,  and 
for  such  other  cities  and  towns  as,  in  its  opinion,  should  be  added 
thereto;  and  has  also  made  the  additional  investigations  set  forth 
in  the  second  section  of  the  same  act,  and  now  desires  to  submit 
the  following  report :  — 

The  act  under  which  the  Board  has  conducted  this  inquiry 
apparently  provides  for  the  same  general  treatment  of  the  ques- 
tion of  water  supply  as  was  adopted  by  the  General  Court  of  1887 
for  the  creation  of  a  sewerage  system  for  a  somewhat  smaller 
district.  Substantially  all  the  arguments  that  were  urged  by  this 
Board  for  the  MetropoHtan  Sewerage  System,  which,  built  in 
accordance  with  our  recommendations,  is  now  nearly  completed, 
may  be  used  with  even  greater  force  in  aid  of  any  well-devised 
plan  for  giving  to  a  still  larger  district  a  sufi&cient  supply  of  the 
best  water  attainable. 

F.  P.  Stearns,  C.E.,  chief  engineer  of  the  Board,  has  prepared 
the  very  full  and  accurate  statement  of  the  present  and  future 
resources  of  water  available  for  this  metropohtan  district,  to- 
gether with  all  necessary  details  as  to  the  structures  at  the  great 
reservoir,  the  aqueduct  leading  from  it,  the  new  pipe  lines  and 
pumping  stations,  within  the  district;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
information  already  in  possession  of  the  Board,  has  been  able  to 
state  the  results  of  many  new  inquiries  undertaken  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  report.  The  financial  aspects  of  the  problem  are  also 
treated  by  him  in  an  instructive  manner. 

360 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  261 

J.  P.  Davis,  C.E.,  who  has  been  for  a  series  of  years  entirely 
familiar  with  all  the  great  municipal  works  for  water  and  sewerage 
of  the  metropoKtan  district,  has  made  a  careful  examination  of  the 
work  of  our  engineer,  and  finds  it  to  be  well  considered  and  trust- 
worthy. Mr.  Davis  was  for  many  years  city  engineer  of  Boston, 
and  in  this  capacity  designed  and  had  charge  of  the  construction 
of  the  works  for  taking  water  from  the  Sudbury  River.  He  has 
also  been  consulting  engineer  to  the  Aqueduct  Commission  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  was  one  of  the  experts  consulted  as  to  the 
proposed  Quaker  Bridge  Dam. 

Dexter  Brackett,  C.E.,  has  embodied  in  two  appendices  the  re- 
sults of  observations  and  studies  to  which  he  has  devoted  many 
years. 

Another  appendix  contains  a  description  by  Desmond  Fitz- 
Gerald,  C.E.,  of  plans  for  the  draining  of  swamps,  which  are 
now  under  consideration  for  the  improvement  of  the  Sudbury 
watershed. 

Dr.  Drown's  paper  upon  the  influence  exercised  by  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  of  reservoirs  upon  the  water  stored  therein  has 
so  much  that  bears  upon  the  recommendations  of  this  report  that 
we  again  publish  it  as  an  appendix. 

All  the  special  information  that  may  be  found  necessary  to 
explain  or  support  the  compressed  conclusions  of  our  ow^n  report 
will  be  supplied  by  the  valuable  reports  of  the  eminent  authorities 
above  enumerated. 

The  most  famihar  experience  of  this  part  of  the  world,  at  least 
in  the  matter  of  its  water  supplies,  has  been  the  failure  of  sources 
originally  supposed  to  be  abundant  to  properly  meet  the  wants  of 
their  respective  communities  for  any  considerable  length  of  time. 
The  plans  of  the  city  of  Boston,  beginning  with  its  first  scheme  for 
a  general  water  supply  in  the  year  1825,  have  proved  no  exception 
to  this  rule,  and  yet  this  city  has  had  the  services  of  the  ablest  men 
of  their  day. 

The  reason  for  this  constant  disappointment  is  easily  dis- 
covered. The  quantity  of  water  which  the  householder  of  today 
demands  for  the  conveniences  as  well  as  for  the  necessities  of  his 
daily  Kfe  has  increased  beyond  all  expectation.    If  this  enlarged 


262  STATE  SANITATION 

quantity  can  be  secured  without  undue  delay  and  without  such 
injury  as  may  easily  be  made  whole,  it  is  evidently  for  the  general 
welfare  that  such  provision  should  be  made;  for  it  seems  to  us 
reasonable  to  claim  that  no  small  share  in  the  improved  and  still 
improving  state  of  the  public  health  may  be  traced  to  the  meas- 
ures now  adopted  for  the  protection  of  the  purity  of  waters  and 
to  the  greater  cleanliness  of  person,  clothing  and  all  surroundings 
which  inevitably  result  from  a  practically  unlimited  freedom  in 
the  use  of  water.  It  is  essential,  then,  to  determine,  if  possible, 
the  amount  of  water  needed  at  the  present  day,  with  such  fore- 
cast as  to  future  requirements  as  can  be  safely  made. 

It  is,  of  course,  true  that  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  pure 
water  would  meet  all  the  demands  for  drinking  and  cooking,  and 
that  a  water  of  inferior  quality  would  answer  for  other  domestic 
purposes  as  well  as  for  all  municipal  requirements  and  the  de- 
mands of  manufactures;  but  no  satisfactory  arrangement  has  as 
yet  been  made  by  which  two  kinds  of  water  can  be  economically 
and  safely  distributed  through  the  streets  and  buildings  of  cities 
and  towns. 

It  was  discovered  by  this  Board,  some  years  since,  that  no  in- 
considerable portion  of  the  cases  of  typhoid  fever  found  in  certain 
manufacturing  towns  in  this  state  was  the  result  of  the  careless 
drinking  of  a  dangerous  water,  which  is  used  in  the  mills  for 
mechanical  purposes  only,  is  understood  to  be  dangerous  and  is 
distinctly  so  marked ;  but  this  inferior  water  was  still  used  by  the 
operatives,  because  it  was  sometimes  cooler,  was  tasteless,  and 
generally  more  accessible. 

The  Board  has  hoped  that  it  might  be  possible  to  devise  some 
plan  by  which  the  very  Hmited  amount  of  quite  pure  water  really 
needed  in  our  houses  might  be  secured  and  distributed;  but  no 
satisfactory  method  has  as  yet  suggested  itself,  nor  with  the 
present  outlook  for  an  abundant  supply  of  very  good  water 
does  such  a  plan  seem  to  be  an  urgent  need  either  on  grounds  of 
health  or  economy. 

The  average  daily  consumption  of  water  in  the  metropoHtan 
district  for  the  year  1894  was  79,046,000  gallons,  the  average 
daily  capacity  of  the  sources  now  in  existence  for  the  supply  of 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  263 

this  district  was  only  83,700,000  gallons;  that  is  to  say,  the  aver- 
age daily  supply  is  only  4,654,000  gallons  in  excess  of  the  actual 
needs.  Though  some  of  the  sources  of  supply  to  the  district  are 
capable  of  yielding  larger  quantities  of  water  than  are  at  present 
furnished,  we  are  satisfied  that  even  a  very  thorough  develop- 
ment of  all  these  sources  will  barely  carry  the  district  safely 
through  a  year  of  unusual  drought,  should  such  a  season  occur 
before  the  date  at  which  the  works,  hereafter  to  be  described, 
can  be  put  in  condition  to  increase  the  supply;  and  this 
would  be  true  even  though  the  cities  or  towns  which  might 
find  themselves  possessed  of  a  surplus  supply  could  transfer  it 
to  their  neighbor  in  want. 

The  population  of  this  metropolitan  district  was,  by  the 
United  States  census  of  1890,  844,814.  Estimates  which  have 
been  carefully  made,  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  diminution  in 
rate  of  increase  by  reason  of  the  depression  in  business,  place  the 
population  for  the  year  1895  at  984,301.  The  water  works  of  the 
city  of  Boston  now  supply  nearly  75  per  cent  of  all  the  water  used 
in  the  metropolitan  district.  The  daily  average  consumption  of 
those  cities  and  towns  receiving  water  from  the  Boston  works  was 
99  gallons  in  1893,  and  the  average  for  the  entire  district  now 
under  consideration  was,  for  the  same  year,  83  gallons.  It  seems 
to  be  generally  true  that  the  nearer  we  approach  the  centres  of 
population  the  greater  becomes  the  use  of  water;  and,  with  the 
inevitable  growth  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs,  it  does  not  appear  to 
us  wise  to  calculate  upon  a  requirement  per  inhabitant  of  less 
than  100  gallons  for  the  long  period  of  years  for  which  we  seek  a 
supply. 

We  have  not  deemed  it  necessary  or  advisable  to  busy  our- 
selves with  the  insoluble  problem  of  the  probable  future  increase 
of  population  in  and  about  Boston.  We  have  assumed  that  the 
growth  will  go  on  as  it  has  gone  on  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century;  and  for  a  population  determined  by  such  principles  we 
have  made  provision. 

While  every  effort  has  been  made  to  reconcile  the  views  of  the 
local  authorities  with  our  own  as  to  their  respective  requirements 
both  in  regard  to  quantity  and  quality  of  water  needed  and  their 


264  STATE  SANITATION 

capacity  to  meet  such  demands,  the  Board  has  in  several  cases 
arrived  at  results  quite  different  from  those  held  by  these  authori- 
ties. It  is  assumed  that  no  portion  of  this  large  and  intimately 
associated  community  will  accept  for  any  length  of  time  a  water 
inferior  to  that  enjoyed  by  their  neighbors,  either  in  healthful 
qualities  or  attractive  appearance  and  odor;  and  it  will  not  be 
profitable  as  a  municipal  investment  to  offer  the  stranger  seeking 
a  new  home  anything  so  essential  to  his  health  and  comfort  as 
water  is,  that  shall  be  decidedly  poorer  than  the  article  distributed 
on  the  other  side  of  the  town's  borders. 

It  has,  therefore,  been  assumed  by  us  that  the  various  com- 
munities under  consideration  will  take,  sooner  or  later,  the  better 
water,  provided  that  the  cost  of  taking  it  is  not  in  excess  or 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  an  existing  and  inferior  supply. 

It  will  also  be  found  to  be  true,  we  think,  that  a  very  large 
amount  of  the  best  water  can  be  provided  for  the  district  at  a 
price  per  head  far  below  that  at  which  any  municipality  within 
the  district,  with  the  exception  probably  of  Brookline,  Newton 
and  Waltham,  can  supply  a  water  of  anything  Hke  an  equal 
quahty.  Moreover,  in  our  opinion,  the  most  favored  locaHty  in 
this  region  has  no  prospect  of  obtaining  beyond  the  next  twenty 
or  twenty-five  years  any  source  of  supply  that  can  be  favorably 
compared,  either  on  grounds  of  health  or  economy,  with  the 
source  to  be  later  described.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Wal- 
tham, even  with  its  present  abundant  and  good  supply,  can  con- 
tinue to  depend  through  a  series  of  years  upon  water  filtered 
uninterruptedly  in  ever-increasing  quantities  from  a  river  more 
or  less  polluted. 

Of  the  communities  composing  the  metropolitan  district,  those 
using  80  per  cent  of  the  full  amount  of  water  will  need  the  metro- 
poHtan  supply  nearly  as  soon  as  it  can  be  furnished.  It  is  prob- 
ably possible  for  those  using  10  per  cent  of  the  full  amount  to 
extend  their  works  so  that  they  may  give  them  a  supply  for 
twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  and  the  remaining  10  per  cent  will 
need  the  metropoHtan  supply  within  a  shorter  time. 

The  works  of  distribution  have  been  so  designed  that  the  first 
cost  will  be  increased  as  Httle  as  practicable,  and  that  they  may 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  265 

be  in  condition  to  supply  these  communities  when  they  shall 
need  the  water,  by  additions  to  the  works  first  constructed;  but 
some  expense  must  necessarily  be  incurred  at  first,  on  account  of 
the  prospective  use  by  these  communities. 

For  the  purpose  of  determining  which  cities  and  towns  should 
be  included  in  the  district  to  be  formed,  a  careful  review  has  been 
undertaken  of  all  the  facts  within  our  reach  which  have  a  bearing 
upon  this  question,  —  facts  which  will  be  found  duly  stated  in  the 
subjoined  report  of  the  engineer,  Mr.  Stearns;  and  we  accordingly 
recommend  that  the  cities  of  Boston,  Cambridge,  Chelsea, 
Everett,  Lynn,  Maiden,  Medford,  Newton,  Quincy,  Somerville, 
Waltham  and  Woburn,  and  the  towns  of  Arlington,  Belmont, 
Brookhne,  Hyde  Park,  Lexington,  Melrose,  Milton,  Nahant, 
Revere,  Saugus,  Stoneham,  Swampscott,  Wakefield,  Water- 
town,  Winchester  and  Winthrop,  twenty-eight  cities  and  towns, 
containing,  in  1890,  848,012  inhabitants,  constitute  the  metro- 
poKtan  water  district. 

Inasmuch  as  the  cities  of  Cambridge,  Lynn,  Newton,  Waltham 
and  Woburn,  and  the  towns  of  Brookline,  Lexington,  Nahant, 
Saugus,  Swampscott  and  Winchester,  together  containing,  in 
1890,  210,252  inhabitants,  beheve  that  they  have  a  sufiicient 
supply  for  some  years  to  come,  we  do  not  recommend  that  they 
be  provided  with  water  from  the  metropoHtan  supply  until  they 
formally  express  their  wish  for  it.  These  municipalities  con- 
tained about  one-fourth  of  all  the  people  living  in  the  proposed 
district  in  the  year  1890.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  recording  our 
own  belief  that  the  period  at  which  this  supply  will  be  demanded 
by  them  is  much  nearer  than  they  now  anticipate;  but  their 
participation  in  the  scheme  is  not  essential  to  the  success  of  the 
undertaking,  nor  will  their  absence  render  the  immediate  pro- 
curing of  a  new  water  supply  any  the  less  necessary. 

After  a  thorough  revision  of  all  the  sources  of  water  which  have 
been  suggested  or  which  we  could  discover,  we  selected  three 
which  seemed  worthy  of  critical  examination,  —  Lake  Winni- 
piseogee  in  New  Hampshire,  the  Merrimack  River  above  Lowell 
and  the  Nashua  River  above  Clinton. 

Lake  Winnipiseogee  has  for  many  years  been  held  to  be  the 
ideal  of  all  that  was  needed  in  the  way  of  a  perfect  source  of  pure 


266  STATE  SANITATION 

water,  and  it  is  capable  of  furnishing  an  abundant  and  excellent 
supply.  The  clear  depths  of  its  waters  and  the  apparent  freedom 
from  pollution  along  its  shores,  unlike  many  of  the  artificial 
reservoirs  hitherto  constructed,  have  created  so  strong  a  popular 
behef  in  its  necessary  superiority  to  anything  artificial  that  it 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  direct  attention  for  a  moment  to  some 
of  the  defects  to  be  found  even  here.  The  permanent  population 
on  the  territory  draining  to  the  lake  is  not  large,  —  35  persons 
per  square  mile;  but  the  attractive  shores  have  become  the 
favorite  summer  camping-ground  of  thousands,  and  the  amount 
of  the  most  serious  forms  of  pollution  directly  entering  the  water 
of  the  lake  must  be  large  and  ever-growing.  Even  though  the 
State  of  New  Hampshire  might  allow  a  certain  amount  of  water 
to  be  taken  from  this  lake  for  domestic  water  supply  within  her 
own  limits,  it  is  not  probable  that  she  would  consent  to  the  with- 
drawal of  amounts  of  water  so  large  as  to  injure  her  own  manu- 
facturing industries,  or  to  give  to  the  people  of  another  state  any 
authority  to  interfere  by  police  regulations  with  the  unhampered 
enjoyment  by  her  own  citizens  of  her  beautiful  pleasure-grounds. 

The  expense,  however,  of  constructing  a  conduit  over  the 
shortest  and  best  route  which  it  has  been  possible  to  discover,  and 
for  distributing  this  water  through  the  district,  amounts  to  $34,- 
000,000.  This  large  sum  does  not  include  the  cost  of  the  damages 
inflicted  by  the  diversion  of  water  and  charges  incident  thereto; 
and  we  are  confident  that  the  water  thus  obtained  would  have  no 
greater  value  than  supplies  which  can  be  obtained  at  much 
smaller  cost  within  the  limits  of  this  state  and  protected  by  our 
own  laws. 

Examinations  have  also  been  made  with  the  view  of  taking  the 
water  of  the  Merrimack  River  above  Lowell,  subjecting  it  to 
efficient  filtration  and  bringing  it  down  into  the  metropolitan 
district.  The  quantity  of  water  that  could  be  obtained  in  this 
way  and  for  this  purpose  is  unlimited;  and,  if  there  were  no  way 
of  obtaining  a  better  supply  of  water  and  one  which  was  above 
suspicion,  it  would  be  practicable  to  introduce  water  from  that 
source  at  a  cost  somewhat  less  than  from  any  other  source 
considered. 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  267 

The  estimated  cost  of  filtering  and  conveying  this  water  to  the 
metropolitan  district  is  $17,500,000;  but  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Board  it  will  be  better  to  pay  10  per  cent  more  for  a  supply  from 
a  source  that  has  not  been  polluted.  The  experiments  carried  on 
by  this  Board  for  a  succession  of  years  at  an  experiment  station  in 
Lawrence  under  the  immediate  direction  of  H.  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  a 
member  of  this  Board,  and  the  filter  constructed  in  connection 
with  the  water  works  of  that  city,  have  shown  that  waters  as 
polluted  as  those  of  the  Merrimack  can  be  effectually  filtered  and 
rendered  safe  for  domestic  use;  but  it  is  also  true  that  filtering 
areas  require  continuous  care  on  the  part  of  well-trained  attend- 
ants, and  that,  in  a  few  instances  at  least,  inefficient  administra- 
tion or  inherent  defects  of  construction  have  allowed  disease  germs 
to  pass  through  filters  which  were  assumed,  by  good  authority,  to 
be  a  sufficient  protection. 

We  are  the  more  easily  led  to  reject  the  filtered  waters  of  the 
polluted  Merrimack  because  we  have  found  an  entirely  satisfac- 
tory water  in  the  South  Branch  of  the  Nashua  River  above  the 
city  of  Clinton.  We  find  that  the  conduit  of  the  Boston  water 
works  was  built  of  much  larger  capacity  than  was  needed  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  amount  of  water  to  be  derived  from  the  Sud- 
bury River,  being  capable  of  taking  50,000,000  gallons  a  day  more 
than  is  at  present  supphed  to  it.  The  territory  from  which  an 
additional  supply  for  this  district  may  be  sought  is  thus  moved 
out  to  the  westerly  end  of  this  conduit,  or  to  the  westerly  end 
of  the  valley  and  reservoir  connected  with  this  conduit. 

The  first  source  of  considerable  size  found  to  the  west  of  this 
point  is  the  above-named  South  Branch  of  the  Nashua,  which,  at 
the  city  of  CHnton,  has  a  watershed  of  118.23  square  miles,  con- 
sisting of  a  sparsely  settled  district  containing  but  sixty-nine 
persons  to  the  square  mile.  The  southerly  and  easterly  slopes  of 
Wachusett  Mountain  which  bound  this  territory  to  the  north  and 
west  are  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  and  offer  few  induce- 
ments to  the  establishment  of  manufactures.  In  this  section  the 
rate  of  increase  of  population  has  been  very  slight,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  centres  of  population  is  such  that  no  more  rapid  rate 
of  growth  can  be  expected  in  the  future. 


268  STATE  SANITATION 

In  this  river,  a  short  distance  above  the  Lancaster  Mills  in 
Clinton,  a  dam  can  be  built  which  will  raise  the  water  107  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  existing  mill  pond,  and  flowing  to  the 
average  depth  of  46  feet  an  area  of  6|  square  miles,  with  its  high- 
water  mark  385  feet  above  the  level  of  high  tide  in  Boston  harbor. 
This  reservoir  will  have  a  capacity  of  63,000,000,000  gallons,  and 
the  territory  draining  into  it  will  supply,  in  a  series  of  very  dry 
years,  111,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily,  which,  with  the  62,000,- 
000  gallons  obtainable  from  the  Sudbury  and  Cochituate  water- 
sheds, will  make  the  total  capacity  of  the  combined  sources 
173,000,000  gallons,  which  is  double  the  capacity  of  all  the 
sources  now  utilized  by  the  metropolitan  district. 

The  reservoir  can  be  connected  with  the  new  Reservoir  No.  5 
now  constructing  by  the  city  of  Boston  in  the  Sudbury  River 
system.  The  connection  would  be  made  by  an  aqueduct  a  Kttle 
less  than  nine  miles  long,  and  an  open  channel  about  three  miles 
long  following  the  course  of  an  existing  brook.  This  aqueduct  is 
designed  to  be  built  low  enough  to  take  water  from  the  level  of  the 
present  mill  pond  in  Clinton;  so  that,  should  it  become  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  supply  to  the  metropoHtan  district  before  the 
dam  and  reservoir  are  completed,  the  ordinary  flow  of  the  river 
could  be  brought  down  into  the  Sudbury  system  as  soon  as  the 
aqueduct  is  built. 

The  very  great  merit  of  the  plan  now  submitted  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  this  extension  of  the  chain  of  the  metropoHtan 
water  supplies  to  the  valley  of  the  Nashua  will  settle  forever  the 
future  water  poHcy  of  the  district,  for  a  comparatively  inexpen- 
sive conduit  can  be  constructed  through  to  the  valley  of  the 
Ware  River,  and  beyond  the  Ware  River  Hes  the  valley  of  the 
Swift;  and,  in  a  future  so  far  distant  that  we  do  not  venture  to 
give  a  date  to  it,  are  portions  of  the  Westfield  and  Deerfield 
rivers,  capable,  when  united,  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  the  best 
water  for  a  municipality  larger  than  any  now  found  in  the  world. 

The  expense  of  this  great  scheme  is  comparatively  moderate, 
because  the  watersheds  in  question  are  sparsely  settled,  He 
among  the  higher  regions  of  the  state,  and  are  not  likely  to  be- 
come the  seat  of  manufacturing  industries.    Moreover,  all  these 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  269 

streams  can  be  brought  down  by  their  own  natural  flow  from 
appropriate  reservoirs  to  the  existing  distributing  basins  in  the 
metropoHtan  district. 

The  water  in  the  South  Branch  of  the  Nashua  River  is  at 
present  of  good  quahty,  and,  with  the  small  population  upon  its 
drainage  area,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  protect  it  from  impurities 
in  the  future;  but,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board,  the  large  reservoir 
to  be  constructed  will  serve  as  a  means  of  very  much  improving 
the  quahty  of  the  water;  its  area  and  depth  are  so  great  that  it 
will  contain,  at  nearly  all  stages  at  which  it  is  proposed  to  hold 
the  water,  a  full  year's  supply  when  double  the  quantity  now  used 
in  the  metropoUtan  district  is  drawn  from  it  and  the  Sudbury  and 
Cochituate  areas.  During  the  long  period  through  which  water 
remains  in  this  reservoir  a  bleaching  and  purifying  process  will  go 
on,  which  will  probably  cause  the  death  of  all  the  disease  germs 
which  may  be  turned  into  it  from  contributing  streams,  and  the 
water  thus  become  more  agreeable  to  the  sight  and  taste,  and  be, 
in  fact,  more  wholesome  than  the  present  water  from  any  of  its 
contributing  streams.  La  order  that  this  may  be  the  case,  the 
Board  has  thought  best  to  increase  the  depth  of  the  reservoir  by 
raising  the  dam,  and  to  remove  from  its  area  the  vegetable  matter 
and  soil  which  may  cover  it,  and  thus  expend  about  $4,000,000  in 
rendering  the  water  of  the  best  quahty  practicable. 

So  many  advantages  are  offered  by  larger  storage  reservoirs,  as 
compared  with  the  smaller  basins,  which  local  geographical  pecu- 
Harities  have  compelled  the  metropoHtan  district  to  build  hitherto, 
that  it  has  seemed  advisable  to  us  to  urge  the  completest  possible 
preparation  of  this  new  reservoir. 

After  this  new  water  has  been  brought  into  the  Sudbury  sys- 
tem, it  will  pass  down  into  Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir,  where  it  will 
for  the  first  time  require  to  be  pumped  to  an  elevation  of  thirty 
feet,  sufiicient  to  give  an  additional  head  to  the  Boston  low-service 
system  and  to  carry  over  to  Spot  Pond  the  supply  needed  for  the 
northerly  portion  of  the  metropoHtan  district.  In  our  estimates 
of  cost  a  sum  of  money  has  been  set  aside  for  the  improvement  of 
Spot  Pond,  principally  for  removing  its  shaUow  flowage,  and  we 
beHeve  it  will  then  be  a  valuable  distributing  reservoir  and 
restored  to  its  normal  height. 


27©  STATE  SANITATION 

It  is  estimated  that  no  other  conduit  will  be  required  in  addi- 
tion to  the  present  one  from  Sudbury  River  to  Chestnut  Hill 
Reservoir  for  ten  or  more  years;  but  before  the  end  of  this  period 
it  will  be  necessary  to  build  an  additional  conduit,  extending 
from  Reservoir  No.  5  of  the  Boston  water  works  to  a  point  in  the 
town  of  Weston  not  far  from  the  Charles  River,  at  such  a  height 
that  the  water  may  be  conveyed  in  pipes  to  Spot  Pond,  and  be 
distributed  through  the  low-service  system  in  the  metropolitan 
district  by  gravity.  This  aqueduct  will  be  thirteen  and  one-half 
miles  long,  and  is  designed  to  convey  250,000,000  gallons  of  water 
per  day. 

Spot  Pond  is  selected  for  a  general  distributing  reservoir  in 
order  that  the  low-service  district  may  have  a  pressure  thirty  or 
forty  feet  greater  than  would  be  supplied  by  Chestnut  Hill 
Reservoir ;  this  increased  pressure  is  rendered  necessary  in  order 
to  include  large  areas  in  the  district  which  would  be  inadequately 
served  by  the  lower  reservoir  and  by  the  custom  of  constructing 
very  high  buildings  upon  the  low-lying  territory. 

The  method  of  distributing  the  water  over  the  metropolitan 
district  is  given  in  detail  in  the  report  of  the  chief  engineer;  it 
is  designed  to  supply  to  each  community  within  the  district  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water  for  its  use  at  a  pressure  sufficient  for 
all  requirements  within  its  territory,  and  it  will  be  feasible  to 
supply  all  the  highest  portions  of  the  district  more  efficiently  than 
at  present  from  a  much  smaller  number  of  stations  and  at  a  much 
diminished  charge  for  annual  maintenance. 

In  considering  the  plans  for  the  proposed  reservoir  above  the 
Lancaster  Mills,  we  have  been  impressed  by  the  very  serious 
changes  which  will  be  produced  in  the  towns  of  Boylston  and 
West  Boylston.  It  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  a  very  important 
objection  to  our  plan  that  certain  mill  sites  will  be  eighty  feet 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  basin,  nor  that  the  homes  of  many 
industrious  people  dependent  upon  these  mills  for  their  Uving  will 
be  also  submerged,  because  all  these  can  be  paid  for,  and  an  equiv- 
alent will  be  given,  —  damages  for  which  we  have  caused  careful 
estimates  to  be  made.  But  we  have  not  deemed  it  to  be  within  our 
province  to  decide  upon  a  plan  for  making  good  the^many  other 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  271 

losses  that  must  of  necessity  fall  upon  these  sorely  diminished 
townships,  —  the  burden  of  a  town  debt  for  which  much  of  the 
available  security  has  been  taken  away,  the  loss  of  a  near  market 
for  the  farmer  upon  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  and  the  many 
other  losses  which  will  naturally  suggest  themselves.  We  can 
only  state  that  we  recognize  the  existence  of  these  losses,  that  we 
believe  some  form  of  compensation  should  be  granted,  and  that 
the  benefit  to  the  metropolitan  district  by  reason  of  a  pure  water 
supply  in  abundant  quantity  will  be  so  great  that  this  district, 
which  contains  more  than  half  the  taxable  property  of  the  state, 
can  afford  to  pay  for  all  the  injury  inflicted ;  at  the  same  time  we 
must  leave  the  suggestion,  even,  of  the  nature  of  the  remedy,  to 
the  wisdom  of  your  honorable  body. 

The  total  assessed  valuation  of  West  Boylston  for  1894  was.    .  $951,610 

Assessed  value  of  property  to  be  taken 557,73° 

The  total  assessed  valuation  of  Boylston  for  1894  was   ....  429,435 

Assessed  value  of  property  to  be  taken 165,200 

In  preparing  the  estimates  for  the  cost  of  the  great  work  here 
sketched  out,  we  have  brought  to  our  assistance  the  best  expert 
aid,  and  believe  that  the  works  can  be  constructed  within  the  esti- 
mates which  have  been  liberally  made  with  the  usual  allowance 
for  contingencies. 

It  may  also  be  of  interest  to  you  to  know  that,  of  the  whole 
watershed  of  the  Nashua  River  above  the  city  of  Nashua  in  New 
Hampshire,  at  which  place  the  Nashua  enters  the  Merrimack,  the 
proposed  reservoir  cuts  off  22  per  cent;  but,  with  the  provision 
which  is  inserted  in  the  draft  of  an  act  herewith  submitted  for 
allowing  a  stated  quantity  of  water  to  be  discharged  into  the 
mill  pond  below  the  reservoir  dam,  the  deprivation  of  water  will 
not  be  so  extensive  as  the  proportion  of  reservoir  watershed  to 
the  whole  watershed  of  the  Nashua  would  indicate. 

The  estimates  of  cost  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Stearns,  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  Board.  They  have  been  made  from  carefully 
prepared  designs,  and  are  intended  to  be  sufficient  to  include  the 
full  cost  of  the  completed  work. 

The  cost  of  the  works  necessary  to  supply  all  the  communi- 
ties of  the  metropolitan  district  for  the  next  ten  years  with  the 


2  72  STATE  SANITATION 

main  part  of  the  works  of  sufficient  capacity  for  a  long  future  is 
estimated  as  follows :  — 

Reservoir  on  Nashua  River,  including  the  cost  of  land,  buildings 
and  water  rights  taken,  the  relocation  of  roads  and  railroads, 
the  removal  of  all  soil  from  the  site  of  the  reservoir,  the  construc- 
tion of  dams  and  dikes  and  all  incidental  expenses $9,105,000 

Improvement  of  the  watershed  of  the  Nashua  River  and  of  the 
Stony  Brook  branch  of  the  Sudbury  River  by  the  diversion  and 
purification  of  sewage  and  drainage  of  swamps 513,000 

Aqueduct  from  the  Nashua  River  to  the  Sudbury  watershed  and 

open  channel  from  the  end  of  the  aqueduct  to  Reservoir  No.  5   .         2, 265,000 

Additional  forty-eight-inch  pipe  from  Dam  No.  3  to  Dam  No.  i 

and  across  the  Rosemary  valley 78,800 

Pumping  stations,  reservoirs  and  pipe  systems  for  elevating  and 
distributing  water  to  all  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  metro- 
politan district,  including  the  improvement  of  Spot  Pond    .    .         5,584,000 

Damages  for  the  diversion  of  water  from  the  Nashua  River  and 

incidental  damages  not  included  above 1,500,000 

Total  first  cost  of  proposed  works  for  supplying  water  to  all  of 

the  cities  and  towns  in  the  metropolitan  district    ....     $19,045,800 

The  estimates  of  damages  for  the  diversion  of  water  from  the 
Nashua  River  are  beUeved  by  the  Board  to  be  ample  to  cover  all 
reasonable  demands,  and  are  made  large  enough  so  that  it  is  prob- 
able that  some  of  the  more  important  can  be  settled  within  the 
estimate  without  litigation. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  the  driest  year  to  lower  the  water  in  the 
reservoir  more  than  sixty  feet,  and  there  will  always  be  a  great 
fall  between  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir  and  in  the 
aqueduct  leading  from  it.  It  is  estimated  that  this  fall  may  be 
utiUzed  to  furnish  1,000  horse-power  by  day  and  500  horse-power 
by  night  for  the  first  fifteen  years,  and  nearly  as  much  for  the 
following  years. 

After  these  twenty  years,  should  the  growth  of  the  district  be 
as  estimated,  additions  will  have  to  be  made  by  adding  certain 
tributaries  of  the  Assabet  River,  or  by  extending  the  works  to 
the  valley  of  the  Ware  River,  either  of  which  can  be  done  at  a 
comparatively  small  cost. 

The  annual  cost  for  interest,  sinking  fund  and  maintenance 
of  the  works  for  supplying  the  whole  district  when  the  works 


METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY  273 

The  estimated  first  cost  of  the  proposed  works  for  supplying  water 
to  all  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  metropolitan  district  is,  as 
above  stated      $19,045,800 

Within  the  next  ten  years,  if  the  water  is  used  by  all  of  the  cities 
and  towns,  there  will  be  required  an  additional  expenditure  for 
an  aqueduct  from  Reservoir  No.  5  to  Weston,  and  for  main 
pipes  and  an  aqueduct  therefrom  to  the  existing  distributing 
system  and  to  Spot  Pond  of 4,982,000 

In  the  second  ten  years  a  further  expenditure  will  be  necessary  for 
additional  pipes  from  Weston  and  for  improving  a  portion  of 
the  Sudbury  River  watershed,  not  included  in  the  first  estimate, 
of 1,300,000 

Total  expenditure  for  full  development  of  Nashua  River 
source,  and  for  a  supply  of  173,000,000  gallons  of  water  per 
day  distributed  to  all  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  metro- 
politan district $25,327,800 

are  first  completed  is  estimated  to  be  ninety-three  cents  per 
inhabitant,  and  the  cost  will  decrease  with  the  growth  of  pop- 
ulation. 

In  conclusion,  we  desire  to  again  call  your  attention  to  our  pro- 
found conviction  of  the  need  of  prompt  action  in  entering  upon 
works  of  construction  which  cannot  for  years  be  completed,  and 
of  which  the  absolute  necessity  will  at  an  early  day  be  forced 
upon  this  community;  and  we  are  confident  that  we  have  pointed 
out  an  economical  as  well  as  practicable  means  of  securing  one 
of  the  most  essential  conditions  for  healthy  human  life. 

H.  P.  Walcott, 
J.  W.  Hastings, 
H.  F.  Mills, 

F.  W.  Draper, 

G.  C.    TOBEY, 

J.  W.  Hull, 
C.  H.  Porter, 

State  Board  of  Health. 


XXVI 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  TOXIN  PRODUCTION  OF 
DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI 

By  Theobald  Smith,  M.D.,  and  Ernest  L.  Walker 

[This  paper  of  Dr.  Smith  and  Mr.  Walker  resulted  in  decided  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  antitoxin.  It  was  an  admirable  piece  of  scientific  investigation. 
The  long  table  of  results  accompanying  the  paper  is  here  omitted.  Twenty-eighth 
Annual  Report,  1896,  p.  647.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

Introduction  ^ 

This  inquiry  was  suggested  by  the  following  important  problems 
bearing  upon  the  restriction  of  diphtheria :  — 

1 .  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  pathogenic  power  of  diphtheria 
bacilli  from  different  locaHties  ? 

2.  Is  the  pathogenic  activity  of  bacilli  producing  diphtheria  in 
the  summer  season  different  from  that  of  those  producing  disease 
in  winter  ? 

3.  Is  there  any  reduction  in  the  pathogenic  power  of  bacilli  in 
cases  in  which  they  persist  in  the  throat  after  recovery  ? 

4.  Are  there  any  differences  noticeable  between  the  bacilli  of 
mild  and  those  of  severe  cases  ? 

The  third  and  the  fourth  questions  have  been  attacked  by  other 
observers,  while  the  first  and  the  second  have  not  been  especially 
investigated.  The  answers  to  the  third  and  the  fourth  questions 
have  been,  as  a  rule,  negative.  Observers  have  found  little  or  no 
difference  in  bacilli  from  mild  and  severe  cases,  nor  have  they  been 
able  to  show  any  recognizable  loss  of  virulence  in  the  bacilli 
persisting  in  the  throat  after  recovery. 

The  reasons  for  entering  upon  this  subject  again  were  the 
opportunity  we  have  had  of  examining  cultures  from  different 
towns  within  the  state,  and  more  especially  certain  improved 

^  The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  faithful  assistance  of  J.  R.  Stewart,  to 
whom  the  preparation  of  the  culture  media  was  chiefly  intrusted.  As^^will  be  seen 
from  what  follows,  this  is  not  a  simple  task. 

274 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  275 

methods  of  cultivation  by  which  the  maximum  toxin-producing 
capacity  of  each  bacillus  could  be  brought  out  and  measured 
more  accurately  than  had  been  done  heretofore. 

The  selection  of  cultures  for  the  study  of  the  questions  stated 
above  has  not  been  entirely  satisfactory,  mainly  because  much  of 
the  clinical  information  necessary  to  a  proper  choice  was  not 
accessible  at  the  time  the  cultures  were  received,  and  in  some 
instances  obtainable  only  with  difficulty  at  the  last  moment 
when  the  final  results  were  tabulated.  We  hope,  however,  that 
the  material  at  hand  may  be  supplemented  by  more  in  the  near 
future. 

The  Mode  of  Action  of  Diphtheria  Bacilli 

It  is  now  a  generally  accepted  theory  that  diphtheria  bacilli  act 
in  the  main  through  the  toxins  which  they  produce,  and  which  are 
rapidly  diffused  into  the  fluids  containing  the  vegetating  bacilli. 
The  contents  of  the  bacilli  themselves  seem  to  be  of  Uttle  moment 
as  pathogenic  factors.  Park  and  Williams  ^  allowed  the  washed 
diphtheria  bacilli  to  soak  for  a  week  "  in  a  0.5  per  cent  alkaline 
carbolic  solution."  The  injection  of  one  cubic  centimeter  did  not 
"  produce  any  marked  reaction  in  a  500-gram  guinea-pig," 
although  the  bacilli  themselves  were  powerful  toxin-producers. 
KosseP  collected  the  bacillar  membranes  from  cultures,  washed 
the  bacilli  repeatedly  by  centrifugalizing  with  0.5  per  cent  sodium 
chloride;  then,  after  killing  them  with  vapors  of  chloroform,  he 
extracted  them  for  several  days  in  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of 
weakly  alkaline  fluids.  The  extract  was  only  feebly  poisonous, 
for  it  required  5  cubic  centimeters  to  kill  a  360-gram  guinea-pig 
in  forty-eight  hours. 

Brieger  and  Boer  ^  found  that  shaking  diphtheria  bacilli  with 
ammonium  chloride  and  allowing  them  to  stand  for  eighteen  to 
twenty  hours  removes  the  toxin  from  the  bodies  of  the  bacilli. 
The  bacilli  after  extraction  were  fatal  to  a  500-gram  guinea- 
pig,  in  doses  of  0.0 1  gram  of  bacillar  substance.     They  acted 

^  Journal  of  Exp.  Med.,  I,  p.  174. 

2  Centralblatt  f.  Bakteriologie,  XIX,  p.  977. 

3  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschrift,  1896. 


276  STATE  SANITATION 

by  producing  local  necrosis.  Brieger  states  that  antitoxin  had  no 
effect  upon  this  action  of  the  dead  bacilli,  and  that  immunization 
towards  it  by  gradually  increasing  doses  failed.  The  poison  itself 
withstood  an  hour's  boihng. 

These  experimental  observations,  taken  together,  show  that  the 
toxin  in  the  culture  fluid  and  not  the  body  substance  of  the  bacilli 
themselves  is  to  be  looked  upon  as, the  disease  agent.  The  success 
following  the  prompt  application  of  antitoxin  in  sufficient  doses  is 
an  additional  support  to  this  view.  Moreover,  the  bacilli  them- 
selves do  not  penetrate  into  the  body  in  large  numbers,  hence 
need  not  be  specially  considered  as  adding  to  the  toxic  effect  of 
their  products. 

We  may,  for  convenience,  regard  the  disease-producing  power 
of  diphtheria  bacilli  as  made  up  of  two  elements,  —  toxicity  and 
virulence.  The  former  represents  the  rate  of  accumulation  of 
toxin  in  culture  fluids,  and  is  easily  measured;  the  virulence,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  behavior  of  diph- 
theria bacilli  toward  Hving  tissue,  is  as  yet  an  unknown  quan- 
tity. This  distinction  between  the  toxic  product  of  diphtheria 
bacilH  and  their  inherent  vital  power  to  cope  with  living  tissue 
seems  to  be  established,  at  least  experimentally,  by  the  increase 
in  virulence  of  diphtheria  bacilli  in  their  passage  through  a  series 
of  guinea-pigs,  which  has  been  reported  by  various  observers. 
Thus,  Aronson  ^  states  that  a  culture  which  was  at  first  fatal  to 
guinea-pigs  of  medium  weight,  in  o.  i  cubic  centimeter  doses,  was 
fatal,  after  some  serial  inoculations,  in  doses  of  0.008  cubic 
centimeter.  That  is  to  say,  its  virulence  was  augmented  twelve 
times.  This  experiment  evidently  means  not  that  the  toxin 
formed  in  the  subcutis  of  guinea-pigs  became  twelve  times 
stronger  in  quality  at  the  end  of  the  series,  but  that  the  baciUi 
injected  were  capable,  by  an  adaptation  of  some  sort,  to  multiply 
much  more  abundantly  toward  the  end  of  the  series,  and  hence 
produce  more  toxin.  The  other  explanation,  that  the  toxin  itself 
had  become  more  potent  in  quality,  could  only  gain  confidence  if 
the  bouillon  culture  produced  much  more  toxin  at  the  end  of  the 
experiment  than  at  the  beginning,  the  conditions  remaining 
precisely  the  same. 

^  Berl.  klin.  Wochenschr.,  1893,  Nos.  25  and  26. 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  277 

To  compare  the  disease- producing  power  of  diphtheria  bacilli 
from  different  sources,  it  was,  therefore,  thought  best  to  study  the 
relative  accumulation  of  toxin  in  bouillon,  and  eliminate  the 
bacilU  by  filtration  before  the  test  upon  animals.  The  writer  is 
fully  aware  of  the  fact  that  but  an  instrument  of  pathogenic 
power  is  here  dealt  with,  and  under  artificial  conditions,  since  we 
do  not  know  the  nature  of  the  nutritive  fluid  which  the  bacilli 
make  use  of  on  mucous  membranes,  nor,  as  a  consequence, 
whether  the  toxin  production  in  bouillon  is  a  true  index  of  the 
production  of  toxin  on  mucous  membranes.  The  problem  is,  in 
fact,  very  complex,  as  with  all  infectious  diseases,  and  all  we  can 
hope  to  do  at  a  time  is  to  examine  one  factor  of  disease  as  care- 
fully as  possible,  while  eliminating  all  the  others  for  the  time 
being.  The  use  of  Hving  cultures  upon  animals  is  of  no  service  in 
these  experiments,  because  it  introduces  at  once  three  variable 
factors:  (i)  the  bacilli  as  potential  toxin-producers  after  injection; 
(2)  the  poison  of  their  bodies  after  destruction;  and  (3)  the  toxin 
pre-formed  in  the  culture  fluid  injected.  As  a  consequence,  all 
who  have  used  cultures  find  them  uncertain  in  their  action,  as 
compared  with  the  toxin  alone.  The  bacilli  injected  as  nearly 
free  from  fluid  as  possible  are  equally  unreliable  as  measures  of 
toxicity,  as  the  following  tests  show:  — 

Two  cultures  of  diphtheria  bacilli  are  selected,  which  differ  con- 
siderably in  toxin-producing  power,  the  toxin-producing  power  of 
one  being  about  three  times  that  of  the  other.  Inclined  agar 
cultures  are  prepared  from  each,  and  after  six  days'  growth  the 
bacilK  are  removed  with  a  platinum  wire,  the  amount  of  moist 
bacilli  weighed  and  stirred  in  5  cubic  centimeters  sterile  bouillon, 
making  a  moderately  cloudy  suspension.  One  cubic  centimeter 
contained  by  weight  about  0.0007  gram  of  moist  bacilli. 

Bacillus  No.  14.  —  Five-tenths  cubic  centimeter  of  the  suspension,  in- 
jected subcutaneously  into  a  guinea-pig  weighing  313  grams,  is  fatal  in  five 
days;   i  cubic  centimeter  is  fatal  to  a  330-gram  pig  in  six  days. 

Bacillus  No.  40.  —  Of  the  suspension  made  in  the  way  described,  i  cubic 
centimeter  is  injected  into  a  guinea-pig  weighing  315  grams.  Animal  just 
escapes  death,  and  is  chloroformed  on  the  sixth  day.  Another,  weighing  330 
grams,  receives  0.5  cubic  centimeter.  A  slough  forms  at  the  place  of 
injection.     The  guinea-pig  remains  in  fair  condition. 


278  STATE  SANITATION 

Though  these  tests  show  a  greater  activity  on  the  part  of 
Bacillus  No.  14,  yet  we  miss  here  not  only  the  sharp  definition  in 
the  results  obtained  by  varying  the  dose  of  the  same  culture,  but 
also  in  comparing  the  effect  of  the  same  doses  of  cultures  from 
different  sources. 

A  prolonged  study  of  the  relative  production  of  toxin  in  bouillon 
under  certain  uniform  conditions  has  shown  such  remarkably 
uniform  results  with  the  same  culture,  even  after  long  intervals  of 
time,  that  the  results  obtained  in  this  way  may  be  accepted  as 
showing  an  inherent  difference  in  the  various  bacilli  studied. 

The  Method  Employed  in  Comparing  the  Toxin 
Production  of  Different  Cultures 

In  a  former  publication  ^  the  writer  has  given  the  conditions 
which  must  be  fulfilled  in  order  that  a  maximum  accumulation  of 
toxin  may  take  place  in  bouillon  cultures.  The  facts  there  con- 
sidered and  others  since  then  brought  out  may  be  very  briefly 
reviewed  here.  In  1895,  Spronck  ^  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  variable  amount  of  sugar  present  in  beef  was  responsible 
for  the  great  fluctuations  observed  in  the  toxicity  of  diphtheria 
cultures.  The  writer  had  observed  this  independently  of  Spronck, 
by  studying  the  relation  between  the  amount  of  toxin  in  cultures 
and  the  amount  of  sugar  as  determined  by  the  fermentation  test. 
Sugar  is  present  in  all  beef,  but  in  perhaps  10  per  cent  the  amount 
is  very  small.  In  bouillon  made  from  such  beef  the  writer 
obtained  very  strong  toxin.  In  bouillon  from  beef  containing 
over  o.  I  per  cent  sugar  the  toxin  was  very  feeble. 

The  cause  for  this  difference  lies  in  the  acid  or  acids  formed 
from  the  dextrose  by  the  diphtheria  bacillus,  which  inhibit  the 
multiplication  in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  formed.  In  suffi- 
cient quantity  the  growth  may  be  entirely  checked,  and  finally, 
when  the  acidity  has  reached  a  certain  degree,  the  baciUi  and  the 
toxin  are  destroyed.  Whether  there  are  other  causes  at  work 
besides  mere  inhibition  of  multiplication  remains  undetermined. 

'  Trans.  Association  American  Physicians,  for  1896. 
2  Annal.  de  I'lnstitut  Pasteur,  1895,  p.  758. 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  279 

A  small  amount  of  dextrose,  up  to  0.05  per  cent,  is  not  inimical 
to  toxin  production;  in  fact,  it  seems  to  be  more  favorable  than 
none  at  all,  probably  because  a  certain  minimum  amount  is  neces- 
sary for  the  cell  life  of  the  diphtheria  bacilh.  Bearing  these  facts 
in  mind,  we  are  better  able  to  comprehend  the  various  changes 
going  on  in  cultures.  The  life  of  the  culture  begins  with  a  rapid 
multiplication  of  the  bacilli  introduced  and  the  formation  of  a 
surface  membrane  usually  within  twenty-four  hours.  At  the 
same  time,  any  sugar  present  is  acted  upon  at  once,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  reaction  becomes  more  acid.  If  the  acidity  increases 
beyond  2  per  cent  of  a  normal  acid  solution,^  the  culture  is  Hkely 
to  become  languid,  the  surface  membrane  rifted  and  settle  to 
the  bottom.  Some  bacilli,  by  a  vigorous  surface  growth  which 
probably  oxidizes  the  acid  products  formed,  may  subdue  a  large 
amount  of  acid,  even  to  3.5  per  cent,  and  cause  a  rapid  return 
towards  the  alkahne  level.  The  toxin  appears  in  greatest  con- 
centration when  the  alkaline  level  has  been  reached,  usually 
within  eight  to  twelve  days,  when  sugar  is  present  in  small  amount 
only.  When  sugar  is  more  abundant  the  acid  period  is  prolonged, 
during  which  little  growth  is  evident.  After  several  weeks  a  slow 
alkalizing  tendency  brings  the  culture  to  a  more  vigorous  growth 
and  to  an  alkaline  reaction,  but  without  much  accumulation  of 
toxin. 

Without  going  into  more  detail  on  this  subject,  we  may  sum- 
marize the  conditions  under  which  diphtheria  bacilh  produce 
maximum  amounts  of  toxin  in  the  ordinary  i  per  cent  (Witte) 
peptone  bouillon  as  follows :  — 

1.  Muscle  sugar  in  the  fluid  from  o  to  0.05  per  cent. 

2.  Initial  reaction  from  0.8  to  1.5  per  cent  normal  acid,  the 
lower  figure  pertaining  to  bouillon  containing  the  largest  amount 
of  sugar,  the  higher  to  bouillon  containing  none. 

3.  A  thin  layer  of  bouillon  freely  exposed  to  the  air  through  one 
or  more  cotton-plugged  openings  in  the  vessel,  and  quiescent 
because  the  surface  membrane  which  forms  within  twenty-four 
hours  must  not  be  disturbed. 

^  I.  e.,  each  100  cubic  centimeters  of  the  culture  fluid  requires  2  cubic  centimeters 
of  a  normal  solution  of  alkali  to  bring  the  whole  to  the  neutral  point  as  determined  by 
phenolphthallein. 


28o  STATE  SANITATION 

4.  The  accumulation  of  toxin  should  be  permitted  to  go  on 
until  the  growth  is  checked  by  the  alkaline  reaction.  This  appears 
in  from  eight  to  twelve  days,  according  to  the  initial  reaction  and 
amount  of  sugar  present,  and  the  growth  ceases  when  the  reaction 
is  equivalent  to  0.2  to  0.3  per  cent  normal  alkali. 

The  main  difficulty  before  us,  therefore,  is  to  get  beef  containing 
only  traces  of  dextrose.  The  writer's  original  plan,  to  select  the 
bouillon  in  accordance  with  the  fermentation  test,  is  not  feasible, 
because  so  little  can  be  used.  Spronck's  suggestion,  to  allow  the 
beef  to  lie  for  several  days,  in  order  that  a  partial  decomposition 
by  bacteria  may  transform  the  sugar,  is  better,  but  suffers  from 
certain  difficulties.  The  kind  of  bacteria  cannot  be  controlled, 
and  frequently  the  sugar  is  found  but  partially  removed.  Lat- 
terly, the  writer  has  given  up  this  method  for  one  more  rapid  and 
certain  in  its  action.  The  beef  infusion  is  prepared  either  by 
extracting  the  chopped  beef  at  60°  C.  for  several  hours,  or  over 
night  in  the  refrigerator.  After  removal  of  the  beef  the  infusion  is 
inoculated  with  a  culture  of  some  bacterium  which  rapidly  acts 
upon  dextrose,  and  placed  in  the  thermostat  over  night.  The 
writer  has  tried  only  B.  coli,  and  found  a  complete  transformation 
of  carbohydrates  taking  place  over  night. 

In  the  case  of  bouillon  designed  for  diphtheria  toxin  the  incuba- 
tion should  be  as  short  as  possible,  so  as  to  leave  a  trace  of  sugar  in 
the  fluid.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  placing  the  inoculated 
infusion  in  the  thermostat  at  10  p.m.  and  removing  early  next 
morning  (8  a.m.).  The  infusion  is  then  made  up  in  the  usual  way, 
with  I  per  cent  peptone,  ^  per  cent  sodium  chloride.  The  final 
reaction  should  range,  according  to  the  amount  of  sugar  left  as 
stated  above,  between  0.8  and  1.5  per  cent  normal  acid,  phenol- 
phthalein  being  used  as  indicator.  It  can  easily  be  brought  to 
any  desired  point  by  adding  from  sterile  solutions  the  calculated 
amount  of  normal  acid  or  alkali  (HCl  or  NaHO).  The  whole 
procedure  is  very  simple  after  it  has  been  put  into  routine  practice. 
At  any  rate,  the  bacteriologist  must  make  up  his  mind  to  give  up 
the  early  slovenly  methods  of  preparing  culture  media,  or  else 
be  prepared  for  constant  reverses  and  failures. 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  281 

The  bouillon  must  be  sterilized  finally  in  the  autoclave,  since 
the  ordinary  steaming  frequently  fails  to  destroy  certain  spore- 
bearing  anaerobes,  which  begin  to  multiply  after  the  diphtheria 
bacilli  have  formed  a  membrane  and  deoxidized  the  culture 
medium.    These  anaerobes  inhibit  the  production  of  toxin. ^ 

Park  and  Williams  claim  ^  that  the  amount  of  dextrose  in  beef 
purchased  in  New  York  City  is  not  sufficient  to  interfere  with  the 
maximum  accumulation  of  toxin  if  the  culture  be  made  sufficiently 
alkaline  to  begin  with.  This  claim  I  cannot  support  by  my 
experience  with  beef  bought  in  the  Boston  markets.  It  may  be 
that  these  authors  had  under  observation  bacilli  which  had  ac- 
quired, through  surface  cultivation,  a  greater  power  to  promptly 
oxidize  acid  products.  This  power  is  not  possessed,  as  a  rule,  by 
bacilli  recently  isolated  from  the  throat,  with  which  this  article 
deals. 

A  number  of  observers  have  pubKshed  studies  of  the  relative 
virulence  of  diphtheria  bacilli  from  various  sources,  and  those 
persisting  in  the  throat  after  recovery  for  a  variable  length  of 
time.  It  is  not  the  object  of  this  article  to  re-examine  these 
writings  and  review  the  results  obtained.  For  a  summary  of  the 
literature  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  by  J.  H.  Wright  in 
the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Vol.  131,  1894,  page 
329,  and  Scientific  Bulletin,  No.  i,  of  the  health  department,  city 
of  New  York,  1895.  A  perusal  of  the  various  articles  will  show 
that  the  method  of  testing  the  virulence  of  the  diphtheria  bacilli 
was  not  adapted  to  give  uniform  or  quantitative  results.  Thus, 
Park  and  Beebe,  on  page  23  of  the  bulletin  referred  to,  recommend 
alkaline  glucose  bouillon  as  a  culture  medium,  and  the  injection  of 
cultures  forty- eight  hours  old.  Wright  used  sugar  bouillon  very 
largely.  From  what  we  now  know  of  the  inhibitory  and  destruc- 
tive action  of  the  acids  formed  from  dextrose  by  diphtheria  bacilli, 
the  use  of  more  than  o.i  per  cent  dextrose  in  bouillon  must  be 
considered  as  at  least  unsafe.     However,  the  authors  followed 

^  Since  writing  this,  it  has  been  observed  that  high  temperatures  in  the  autoclave 
may  modify  the  bouillon  in  such  a  manner  that  only  little  toxin  is  formed  subse- 
quently.   This  matter  is  now  under  investigation. 

2  Journal  of  Experimental  Medicine,  I,  1896,  p.  164. 


282  STATE  SANITATION 

general  usage  at  that  time,  for  even  Escherich,  in  his  work  on 
diphtheria  issued  in  1894,  page  91,  states  that  dextrose  is  not 
decomposed  in  appreciable  manner  by  diphtheria  bacilli,  and 
therefore  has  no  influence  on  growth. 

Authors  have  not,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  reported  compara- 
tive tests  of  toxin  production  under  conditions  as  nearly  uniform 
as  possible.  It  was  mainly  to  fill  this  gap,  if  possible,  that  the 
series  of  cultures  to  be  described  were  subjected  to  a  comparative 
examination  from  the  point  of  view  of  toxin  production.  Table  I^ 
gives  a  condensed  account  of  the  work  done  upon  which  the  cal- 
culation of  toxin  production  rests.  In  this  table  will  be  found: 
(i)  the  amount  of  acid  produced  in  dextrose  bouillon;  (2)  the 
condition  of  the  bouillon  used  for  the  cultures;  and  (3)  the  test  of 
the  filtrate  on  guinea-pigs.  The  acid  production  will  be  dealt 
with  farther  on.  The  facts  relative  to  the  bouillon  used  need 
some  explanation. 

The  beef  used  for  bouillon,  with  one  exception,  was  allowed  to 
decompose  according  to  Spronck's  suggestion,  but  the  results 
were  not  uniform,  as  stated  above.  In  some  of  the  bouillon  the 
dextrose  was  absent,  in  some  present  in  traces,  in  some  in  more 
appreciable  amount,  according  to  tests  made  with  the  fermenta- 
tion tube  and  B.  coli.  In  none  was  it  present  in  the  amount 
usually  found  in  bouillon  made  from  fresh  beef.  It  is  not  probable 
that  this  slight  fluctuation  in  the  amount  of  dextrose  had  any 
appreciable  influence  on  the  culture.  Where  a  doubtful  result 
was  obtained  it  was  usually  supplemented  later  on  with  a  second 
test. 

The  question  might  be  asked.  Why  not  use  the  same  bouiUon 
for  all  bacilli  studied,  in  place  of  the  many  lots  actually  employed? 
This  would  seem  the  simplest  procedure,  provided  the  bouillon 
did  not  change  with  time  under  the  influence  of  light  and  air.  A 
diminution  in  the  amount  of  toxin  produced  in  bouillon  which  had 
been  standing  for  some  time  in  a  closet  not  absolutely  dark  had 
been  casually  observed.  It  is  probable  that  bouillon  in  vacuo  and 
kept  in  a  dark  place  might  meet  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  but 
bouillon  kept  under  ordinary  conditions  would  not.     Further 

^  This  table  is  not  reproduced. 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  283 

investigations  are  now  in  progress  to  determine  more  precisely  the 
degree  of  change  produced  in  bouillon  by  age. 

It  might  be  claimed  that  different  bacilli  isolated  from  the 
throat  would  have  different  rates  of  growth  in  bouillon,  and  that 
the  accumulation  of  toxin  was  simply  a  factor  of  the  rate  of  multi- 
phcation,  rather  than  of  any  inherent  differences  in  the  physiology 
of  the  bacilli.  To  answer  this  claim  a  determination  of  the 
number  of  diphtheria  bacilli  in  cultures  is  not  trustworthy,  for  the 
reason  that  diphtheria  bacilh  clump  together,  and  the  number  of 
colonies  in  plate  cultures  may  not  indicate  the  number  of  baciUi 
used  in  preparing  the  plate.  Again,  bacilli  may  die  in  the  course 
of  growth,  and  others  take  their  places.  The  writer  has  therefore 
endeavored  to  estimate  the  vigor  of  growth  by  the  amount  of 
change  in  the  reaction  produced.  Cultures  which  in  a  given  time 
in  the  same  bouillon  produce  nearly  the  same  amount  of  alkali 
may  be  regarded  as  having  performed  the  same  amount  of  work 
and  grown  with  equal  vigor.  The  uniformity  of  reaction  in  the 
various  groups  of  bacilli  studied  together,  after  ten  or  twelve 
days,  was  such  as  to  leave  little  doubt  that  the  growth  had  been 
equally  vigorous.  When  any  culture  lagged  perceptibly  behind, 
it  was  usually  repeated  with  other  bouillon. 

The  extent  of  the  alkaH  production  varies  with  the  initial 
reaction  of  the  bouillon  and  the  presence  of  dextrose.  Cultures 
containing  the  latter  became  at  first  more  acid  before  swinging 
back  to  alkaUnity.  In  Table  I,  therefore,  it  was  deemed  best  to 
give  both  the  initial  reaction  of  the  bouillon,  the  approximate 
amount  of  dextrose  and  the  final  reaction.  Some  idea  may  thus 
be  gained  of  the  ampHtude  of  change  which  the  fluid  underwent 
during  the  period  of  growth  permitted. 

The  culture  vessel  used  at  first  was  a  large  test  tube  placed  in  an 
inclined  position  after  inoculation.  This  was  soon  given  up  for 
the  Erlenmeyer  flask,  in  which  the  depth  of  the  bouillon  was  about 
1.5  centimeters. 

The  toxin  formed  after  ten  to  twelve  days  was  tested  upon 
guinea-pigs.  The  fluid  was  passed  through  filter  paper  until  clear, 
then  diluted  with  sterile  salt  solution,  so  that  the  quantity  of  toxin 
injected  was  contained  in  i  cubic  centimeter.    Usually  o.i  cubic 


284  STATE  SANITATION 

centimeter  of  toxin  was  injected.  The  place  of  injection  chosen 
was  the  left  side  of  the  abdomen.  Great  care  was  exercised  to 
deposit  the  fluid  in  the  subcutis,  and  not  to  prick  the  muscles  of 
the  abdominal  wall.  A  vascular  injection  of  the  omentum  or 
peritoneum  is  usually  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  some  of  the 
fluid  into  the  abdomen.  When  such  reddening  was  noted  at  the 
autopsy,  the  test  was  repeated  upon  another  animal,  since  death 
is  hastened  somewhat  when  this  occurs.  Guinea-pigs  weighing 
between  300  and  350  grams  were  used  whenever  possible. 
When  larger  ones  had  to  be  used,  the  increase  in  weight  was  duly 
taken  into  account. 

From  the  results  of  such  inoculations  the  minimum  fatal  dose 
upon  a  guinea-pig  weighing  300  grams  was  calculated.  The 
calculation  when  such  had  to  be  made  was  based  upon  the  fact 
that  the  minimum  fatal  dose  usually  kills  a  guinea-pig  in  from 
three  and  one-half  to  six  days.  If  x  represents  this  dose,  then  a 
guinea-pig  which  succumbed  in  two  and  one-half  days,  or  sixty 
hours,  received  -g-,  and  one  which  succumbed  in  thirty-six  hours, 
-9-.  Guinea-pigs  of  greater  weight  do  not  necessarily  bear  an 
exact  equivalent  increase  of  toxin,  but  usually  somewhat  less.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  values  given  as  the  minimum  fatal 
doses  may  err  within  10  per  cent,  owing  to  various  factors  which 
cannot  be  controlled.  Among  these  is  a  slight  variation  among 
guinea-pigs  in  their  tolerance  of  the  virus,  the  darker  (black,  or 
black  and  red)  animals  being  able  to  stand  about  10  per  cent 
more  toxin  than  the  white  animals.  Even  if  we  allow  a  variation 
of  10  per  cent  in  the  values  given  in  Table  I,  the  general  outcome 
of  the  comparative  study  is  not  made  in  any  sense  untrustworthy. 

Morphology 

The  following  description  of  the  morphology  and  the  staining 
peculiarities  of  the  bacilli  studied  is  based  on  microscopic  prep- 
arations from  cultures  of  twenty-four  hours'  growth  at  35°  to 
37°  C.  on  Loffler's  blood-serum  mixture,  uniformly  fixed  and 
stained.  The  cover-slip  preparations  were  dried  in  open  air  at 
room  temperature,  fixed  by  heating  twenty  minutes  in  a  dry-air 
steriUzer  at  the  temperature  of  120°  C.,  and  stained  eight  minutes 
with  Loffler's  alkaline  methylene  blue  solution.     It  may  be 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  285 

remarked,  however,  that  experiment  shows  that  the  method  of 
fixation  has  little  if  any  effect  on  the  outline  of  the  bacillus  or 
upon  the  aggregation  of  its  chromatin,  and  consequently  upon  the 
irregularity  of  its  staining. 

In  length  the  diphtheria  bacilH  vary  from  1.5  )li  to  13  /x,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  description  it  is  convenient  to  distinguish  three 
groups:  short  bacilli,  including  all  bacilli  under  2  /i  in  length; 
bacilli  of  medium  length,  including  all  bacilli  between  2  ju  and 
4.5  jLt;  and  long  bacilh,  including  all  bacilli  over  4.5  /z  in  length. 
Bacilli  in  culture  No.  $^  are  rather  remarkable  for  their  length, 
averaging  7.5  )U  to  10  /x,  while  a  few  were  found  as  long  as  13  )u. 

It  may  be  said  of  diphtheria  bacilH  in  general  that  there  appears 
to  be  a  tendency  for  the  shorter  baciUi  to  become  swollen  at  the 
middle  and  for  the  long  bacilH  to  become  swollen  at  the  ends ;  and 
that  the  short  bacilli  are  usually  straight,  while  the  long  baciUi  are 
usually  curved  or  bent  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

Comparison  on  the  basis  of  length,  outline  and  manner  of 
staining  allows  the  bacilli  of  the  forty-two  virulent  cultures  to  be 
divided  into  three  types,  of  which  the  following  description  may 
be  given :  — 

Type  I.  Bacilh  of  medium  length,  straight,  cylindrical  or 
slightly  swollen  in  the  middle,  with  blunt  ends,  and  with  intensely 
stained  granules  in  an  otherwise  uniformly  but  less  deeply  stained 
cell.  In  the  shorter  bacilh  of  this  type  these  granules  are  usually 
situated  at  the  ends  of  the  rod,  one  at  each  end;  but  in  the  longer 
bacilli  there  may  be,  in  addition  to  these  polar  granules,  one  or 
more  interpolar  granules.  These  deeply  stained  bodies  are  usually 
of  less  diameter  than  the  thickness  of  the  bacillus,  but  may  be  of 
greater  diameter,  swelling  the  bacillus  at  the  points  where  they  are 
situated. 

Type  II.  Bacilh  long,  slender,  curved,  more  or  less  swollen  at 
one  or  both  ends,  and  with  alternating  stained  and  unstained  (or 
faintly  stained)  cross-segments. 

Type  III.  This  includes  seven  of  the  forty-two  cultures. 
BacilH  are  of  various  lengths,  swollen  in  the  middle,  with  tapering 
ends,  and  with  broad,  unstained  terminal  and  intermediate 
segments.  These  unstained  terminal  segments  may  be  so  exten- 
sive that  a  body  simulating  a  nucleus  in  the  middle  of  the  cell  is 


286  STATE  SANITATION 

the  only  stained  portion.  More  often  the  cell  may  consist  of  two 
stained  and  three  unstained  cross-bands.  The  staining  of  this 
type  differs  from  that  of  Type  II,  in  that  the  alternating  segments 
of  Type  II  are  narrow  and  numerous  and  the  terminal  ones  are 
always  stained. 

Modifications  of  these  types  and  intermediate  forms  occur  even 
among  bacilli  of  the  same  culture,  but  in  nearly  every  case  one 
form  predominates  sufficiently  to  allow  the  culture  to  be  ranged 
under  one  of  these  three  types.  In  the  routine  work  of  bacteri- 
ological diagnosis  of  diphtheria,  as  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Type  I  and  its  modifications  are 
found  in  about  90  per  cent  of  the  positive  cases  and  bacilli  of 
Type  II  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  other  10  per  cent.  Bacilli 
of  Type  III  are  very  infrequently  found.  This  classification 
holds  good  for  young  cultures  on  Loffler's  serum  mixture  only. 

Bacilli  belonging  to  these  three  types  have  so  far  proved  viru- 
lent to  guinea-pigs  when  tested  according  to  the  methods  given  in 
another  part  of  the  text.  But  besides  these  a  certain  number  of 
bacilli  (Nos.  3,  4,  39  and  44  of  the  tables)  have  been  isolated 
which  are  non-pathogenic,  and  which  belong  to  the  class  of 
pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli  described  farther  on. 

Toxin-Producing  Power 

The  toxicity  of  the  culture  fluid  of  the  forty-six  cultures  after  an 
incubation  at  35°  C.  for  ten  to  twelve  days  ranged  as  follows,  the 
300-gram  guinea-pig  being  the  basis  of  the  computations:  — 

Table  47 

Cubic 
Centimeters 

In  one  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is   036-.04 

In  one  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is   045 

In  five  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 050 

In  five  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 060 

In  four  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 070 

In  four  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 075 

In  eleven  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 080 

In  two  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 090 

In  four  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 100 

In  five  the  minimum  fatal  dose  is 120 

In  four  no  toxin  was  formed 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  287 

Leaving  aside  for  the  moment  the  non-pathogenic  forms,  we 
notice  in  this  summary,  first  of  all,  a  considerable  uniformity  in 
the  toxin-producing  power.  It  is  true  the  strongest  toxin  pro- 
ducer accumulates  three  times  as  much  toxin  as  the  weakest,  but 
only  one  of  such  strength  was  found.  It  will  be  noticed  also  that 
the  greater  number  of  bacilli  studied  produce  an  0.08  cubic 
centimeter  toxin.    If  we  group  the  cultures  as  follows, 

Cultures 

.036-.06  cubic  centimeter  toxins 12 

.o7a-.o9  cubic  centimeter  toxins 21 

.100-.12  cubic  centimeter  toxins 9 

the  predominance  of  the  middle  group  is  better  brought  out. 

Cultures  of  much  greater  toxin-producing  power  have  been 
isolated  by  Park  and  Williams.  Of  these,  the  minimum  fatal  dose 
is  reported  to  range  from  0.002  to  o.oi  cubic  centimeter.  It  is  not 
stated  whether  these  cultures  produced  this  amount  of  toxin  at 
the  outset,  or  after  periods  of  artificial  cultivation. 

By  comparing  these  figures  with  the  results  of  earKer  observers, 
the  greater  efi&ciency  of  the  method  described  appears  in  striking 
relief.  Experimenters  when  first  preparing  antitoxin  had  some 
difficulty  in  finding  bacilli  whose  toxin  would  yield  a  minimum 
fatal  dose  of  0.08  to  o.i  cubic  centimeter.  In  the  series  here 
recorded  only  five  out  of  forty-two  fell  below  this  mark. 

Although  the  clinical  records  of  the  cases  from  which  the  bacilli 
came  are  very  meagre,  they  suffice  to  show  that  any  direct  rela- 
tion between  toxin  production  and  severity  of  the  disease  is  not 
obvious.  This  has  been  the  inference  of  observers  before  us 
(Wright,  Park  and  very  recently  Timaschew  ^) ,  and  we  are  able 
to  confirm  it  after  the  application  of  more  uniform  and  exact 
methods.  This  is  what  might  be  expected  when  we  contemplate 
the  complex  nature  of  the  disease  process,  the  many  factors  which 
may  enter  into  it,  both  on  the  part  of  the  patient  and  the  invading 
bacilli.  There  is  one  factor,  for  instance,  which  may  modify  the 
course  of  the  disease,  and  therefore  make  any  present-day  esti- 
mates untrustworthy,  —  namely,  antitoxin.  If  applied  early 
enough,  it  may  convert  a  potentially  serious  case  into  a  mild  one, 

^  Centralblatt  f.  Bakteriologie,  XXI,  1897,  p.  623. 


288  STATE  SANITATION 

in  spite  of  a  virulent  organism.  Antitoxin  was  used  in  nearly 
every  case  from  which  bacilli  were  studied,  but  the  time  of  admin- 
istration and  the  number  of  units  injected  were  not  reported 
excepting  in  a  few  cases,  so  that  the  facts  on  hand  are  not  worth 
any  serious  study.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  toxin-produc- 
ing power  of  bacilli  from  mild  and  from  severe  cases  varies  but 
little,  and  that  all  throat  affections  must  be  regarded  equally 
dangerous  if  diphtheria  bacilli  are  present. 

The  Toxin-Producing  Power  of  Bacilli  Persisting 
IN  THE  Throat  after  Recovery 

Much  interest  has  been  aroused  by  the  patients  in  whose 
throats  diphtheria  bacilli  may  be  found  a  variable  length  of  time 
after  subsidence  of  all  symptoms  of  disease.  Loffler,  in  his 
investigation  of  the  etiology,  found  diphtheria  bacilli  in  the 
throat  of  a  healthy  child.  Roux  and  Yersin  first  called  attention 
to  the  persistence  of  diphtheria  bacilli  after  recovery,  but  they 
disseminated  the  impression  that  there  was  a  gradual  attenuation 
going  on  which  eventually  made  them  harmless.  That  this  may 
be  true  in  certain  cases  is  not  disputed,  otherwise  it  would  be 
difficult  to  account  for  the  presence,  in  the  mouth  of  some  healthy 
persons,  of  bacilli  in  no  way  distinguishable  from  those  associated 
with  disease  processes  except  by  an  absence  of  virulence.^  This 
attenuation  has  not  been  observed  by  subsequent  investigators, 
however,  and  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  it  to  purge  the  throat 
of  the  recovered  case  of  its  infectious  character. 

Among  the  forty-six  cultures  studied  there  were  eleven  made 
from  the  throat  fifteen  to  sixty-two  days  after  the  appearance  of 
the  disease.  Owing  to  the  meagre  records  returned,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  state  how  long  after  the  subsidence  of  the  symptoms  the 
bacilli  were  obtained  from  the  throat;  but  by  a  reference  to  the 
table,  where  the  relative  severity  of  each  case  is  noted,  some  idea 
may  be  gained  by  the  reader  of  the  probable  duration.  The 
following  table  summarizes  these  cases.  It  includes  two  from 
which  harmless  pseudo-forms  were  obtained :  — 

1  Centralblatt  f.  Bakteriologie,  XXI,  1897,  p.  37. 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI 

Table  48 


289 


Number  of  Culture 


Date  of  Earliest 
Symptoms 


f  Culture 

Inter- 
val (in 
Days) 

3,  1896 

22 

9,  1896 

57 

19,  1896 

52 

19, 1896 

22 

17, 1896 

26 

30, 1896 

IS 

29,  1896 

37 

4, 1897 

17 

16, 1897 

16 

19,  1897 

27 

25,  1897 

45 

23,  1897 

42 

I,  1897 

62 

Minimum 
Fatal  Dose  of 
Toxin  (Cubic 
Centimeters) 


23 
24 
26 
27 
34 
36 
39 
40 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 


July  12,  1896 
July  14,  1896 
Aug.  28,  1896 
Sept.  27,  1896 
Oct.  22,  1896 
Nov.  IS,  1896 
Nov.  22,  1896 
Dec.  18,  1896 
Dec.  31,  1896 
Feb.  20,  1897 
Feb.  8,  1897 
Feb.  9,  1897 
Jan.    29,  1897 


Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

March 

March 

March 

April 


.07 
.08 

■05 
.06 

■05 

.08 
Not  toxic 

.12 

.07 

.08 
Not  toxic 

.08 

.08 


If  we  exclude  the  harmless,  non- toxic  cultures  (Nos.  39,  44), 
which  will  be  discussed  farther  on,  we  observe  that,  so  far  as  toxin 
production  is  concerned,  the  length  of  time  the  bacilli  have 
sojourned  in  the  throat  has  no  tendency  to  reduce  it  below  the 
average.  This  is  still  better  brought  out  by  arranging  the 
cultures  in  the  following  groups :  — 

Table  49 


Group 

Days  after 

Beginning  of 

Disease 

Number  of  the 
Culture 

Toxicity  (Cubic 
Centimeters) 

I 

IS  to  20    ■ 
> 

20  to  30    < 
\ 

50  to  62    < 

35 
40 
42 
23 
27 
34 
43 
24 
26 

45 
46 

.08 
.12 

II 

.07 
.07 
.06 

Ill 

■05 
.08 
.08 

•OS 

.08 
.08 

2  go  STATE  SANITATION 

Still  more  to  the  point  are  cultures  Nos.  22  and  23,  which  were 
isolated  from  the  same  case,  one  three,  the  other  twenty-two, 
days  after  the  onset  of  the  disease.  Here  the  toxin  production 
was  practically  the  same  for  both  cultures. 

Pseudo-Diphtheria  Bacilli 

From  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  four  of  the  forty-six  cultures 
isolated  were  found  to  be  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilU.  It  does  not 
he  within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  discuss  at  length  the  relation 
between  the  true  diphtheria  bacillus  and  the  pseudo-diphtheria 
bacillus.  A  very  good  discussion  will  be  found  in  the  work  of 
Park  and  Beebe,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  Since  its  appear- 
ance nothing  new  has  been  added  to  this  subject.  These  bacilU, 
however,  influence  to  a  certain  degree  the  interpretation  of  prob- 
lems in  pubhc  sanitation,  so  that  a  brief  reference  to  them 
becomes  necessary. 

These  bacilli,  generally  known  as  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli,  are 
short  rods  (1.5  m  to  3  m),  with  rounded  or  tapering  ends  (often 
oval  in  culture),  and  uniformly  stained,  or  with  a  single  narrow, 
unstained  cross-segment.  A  few  cylindrical,  pear  and  hour-glass 
shaped  bacilli  are  occasionally  seen;  but  involution  forms  are  not 
marked,  even  in  old  cultures.  They  are  distinguished  from 
diphtheria  bacilli  by  being  shorter,  smaller,  more  uniform  in  size, 
shape  and  manner  of  staining,  and,  as  pointed  out  by  Escherich, 
by  a  tendency  to  lie  parallel  in  cover-slip  preparations.  These 
bacilli  are  of  occasional  occurrence,  both  in  the  throats  of  patients 
suffering  from  non-diphtheritic  throat  affections  and  in  true 
diphtheria  mingled  with  the  Klebs-LofHer  bacilli.  They  are, 
however,  almost  always  present  in  small  numbers,  while  the 
diphtheria  bacilli,  in  recent  cases,  are  usually  present  in  large 
numbers  and  well  differentiated.  It  is  only  in  convalescent  cases 
of  long  duration  that  the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli  are  Ukely  to 
cause  doubt.  They  might  be  mistaken  for  the  last  few  remaining 
diphtheria  bacilli,  or  the  reverse  might  occur.  A  few  remaining 
virulent  forms  may  be  regarded  as  pseudo-forms.  Diphtheria 
bacilli  directly  from  the  membrane  from  the  throat,  or  from 


TOXIN  OF  DIPHTHERIA  BACILLI  291 

cultures  scarcely  at  all  developed,  sometimes  resemble  quite 
closely  the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli  in  morphology  and  staining. 

The  morphological  differences  are  reenforced  by  at  least  two 
biological  differences  of  importance,  —  the  absence  of  any  power 
to  produce  acids  in  bouillon  containing  dextrose,  and  the  lack  of 
pathogenic  power.  In  Table  I,^  it  will  be  seen  that  all  toxin- 
producing  bacilli,  when  multiplying  in  bouillon  containing  i  per 
cent  dextrose,  produce  a  considerable  amount  of  acid,  ranging  from 
3.5  to  5  per  cent  of  a  normal  acid  solution  when  phenolphthal- 
ein  is  used  as  an  indicator.  A  few  cultures  were  found  which 
produce  between  5  and  6  per  cent.  The  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli 
produced  no  acid  under  the  same  circumstances.  The  culture 
slowly  becomes  more  alkaline,  as  shown  in  the  table  (Nos.  3,  4, 
39,  44).  The  culture  fluid  of  these  bacilli  was  Ukewise  free  from 
toxin.  Guinea-pigs  which  received  from  six  to  twelve  times  the 
average  fatal  dose  of  the  virulent  cultures  showed  no  trace  of 
infiltration  at  the  place  of  injection  and  no  loss  in  weight. 

Though  there  are  these  three  distinctive  features  of  pseudo- 
diphtheria  bacilli,  —  characteristic  morphology,  absence  of  acid 
and  of  toxin  production,  —  it  is  not  a  simple  matter  to  recognize 
them  as  such  promptly  under  the  microscope  when  taken  from 
throat  cultures,  unless  the  observer  has  had  considerable  training. 
It  is  highly  probable,  therefore,  that  Roux  and  Yersin  in  their 
earlier  work  may  have  mistaken  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli  for  true 
diphtheria  bacilK,  when  they  found  virulent  and  non-virulent 
forms  together  in  the  throats  of  convalescents.  This  may  explain 
their  at  that  time  quite  natural  position, — that  the  virulent  forms 
were  being  transformed  into  non-virulent  forms.  In  two  of  the 
cases  tabulated  above  (Nos.  39  and  44)  the  pseudo-diphtheria 
bacilli  were  isolated  respectively  thirty-seven  and  forty-five  days 
after  the  beginning  of  the  disease.  Here,  without  a  more  pro- 
found study  of  the  cultures,  the  belief  might  gain  the  upper  hand 
that  the  cultures  represented  diphtheria  bacilli  which  had  lost 
their  virulence.  This  position  can  no  longer  be  upheld,  and  we 
must  accept  or  at  least  act  upon  the  presumption  that  the  pseudo- 

^  This  table  is  not  reproduced. 


292  STATE  SANITATION 

diphtheria  bacilli  belong  to  a  wholly  different  group  of  bacilli^ 
and  that  a  loss  of  pathogenic  power  of  the  genuine  forms  does  not 
take  place  in  the  mouth  for  months  after  the  subsidence  of  the 
disease,  when  such  forms  persist  after  recovery. 

Of  the  non-virulent  but  otherwise  characteristic  diphtheria 
bacilli,  described  by  Park  and  Beebe  and  by  others  more  recently, 
none  have  come  imder  observation. 


XXVII 

SANITARY  CONDITION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE 
NEPONSET  MEADOWS 

[Written  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Walcott,  chairman  of  the  Board.  Special  Report, 
T897,pp.  v-x.  — G.  C.W.] 

The  State  Board  of  Health,  acting  under  chapter  83  of  the 
Resolves  of  1895,  ^^^  investigated  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
meadows  on  the  Neponset  River  in  the  towns  of  Canton,  Sharon, 
Norwood,  Dedham,  Milton,  and  Hyde  Park,  and  herewith  sub- 
mits the  results  of  that  examination,  together  with  recommenda- 
tions for  the  improvement  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  these 
meadows  and  the  removal  of  nuisance  therefrom. 

These  meadows  are  shown  upon  Plan  No.  i,'  and  cover  an  area 
of  3,662  acres.  Of  this  surface  hardly  more  than  600  acres  appear 
to  be  in  a  condition  adapted  to  profitable  agriculture.  From  the 
remaining  territory  crops  of  hay  are  obtained  occasionally,  or  not 
at  all.  The  condition  of  the  meadows  seems  to  have  grown  worse 
in  recent  years,  and  many  of  the  larger  owners  have  abandoned 
the  attempt  to  secure  some  degree  of  drainage  by  the  mainte- 
nance of  open  ditches,  on  account  of  the  steadily  diminishing 
returns  from  the  crops. 

At  an  earlier  day  and  for  a  succession  of  years  a  grass  known  as 
the  fowl  meadow  or  false  redtop  grew  on  these  meadows,  —  the 
first  name  still  is  used  to  designate  the  locality,  —  and,  proving 
to  be  a  valuable  forage  plant,  gave  a  high  value  to  the  lands  upon 
which  it  flourished.  The  present  condition  of  the  territory,  how- 
ever, is  evidently  not  so  favorable  as  it  once  was  to  the  growth  or 
preservation  of  this  grass,  and  it  is  also  probable  that  cheaper 
transportation  has  brought  into  this  market  hay  of  a  better 
quality  at  a  price  lower  than  that  at  which  this  marsh  grass 
could  be  profitably  sold.  As  a  result  of  either  or  both  of  these 
conditions,  the  value  of  these  lands  has  steadily  fallen. 
^  This  map  is  not  reproduced. 


294  STATE  SANITATION 

While  it  might  be  expected  that  the  meadows  should  be  unin- 
habited, as  they  are,  it  is  not  at  first  so  easy  to  understand  why 
the  higher  grounds  in  the  vicinity  should  be  still  unoccupied  by 
the  rapidly  increasing  suburban  population  which  seeks  and  finds 
acceptable  building  sites  at  distances  from  the  business  centre  of 
Boston  more  considerable  than  any  portion  of  the  area  in  ques- 
tion. The  facilities  for  transportation  by  convenient  railroads 
are  at  least  as  good  as  can  be  found  in  other  directions  from  Bos- 
ton, and  the  towns  which  make  up  the  district  appear  to  be  desir- 
able places  of  residence.  There  has,  however,  for  years  existed  a 
popular  belief  that  the  meadows  have  become  a  source  of  sickness, 
and  this  feeling  seems  recently  to  have  increased.  Intelligent 
observers  report  that  these  meadows  are  at  times  the  source  of 
disagreeable  odors  and  the  direct  cause  of  much  sickness.  The 
examinations  by  this  Board  have  shown  that  the  upper  portion 
of  the  stream  was  very  seriously  polluted,  and  the  opinions  of  the 
physicians  residing  and  practicing  in  the  valley,  which  have  been 
from  time  to  time  collected,  indicate  a  general  belief  on  the  part  of 
the  medical  profession  that  the  conditions  affecting  health  here 
are  more  unfavorable  than  they  formerly  were. 

The  valley  of  the  Neponset  River  has  twice  before  been  the 
subject  of  extended  examinations  by  the  State  authorities,  — 
first  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1875,  and  subsequently  by 
the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  in  1885.  In  addition 
to  these  examinations,  a  description  of  the  Neponset  River  basin, 
with  statistics  relating  to  its  pollution  and  analyses  of  its  waters, 
may  be  found  in  the  special  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
on  the  examination  of  water  supplies,  1890,  and  in  the  twenty- 
second  annual  report  of  the  Board.  So  much  of  the  great  body 
of  facts  collected  by  the  Board  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
purposes  of  this  report  will  be  found  in  the  report  of  the 
engineer. 

The  earliest  notices  of  these  meadows  give  evidence  that  even 
then  there  were  prolonged  periods  of  flooding,  and  that  it  was 
found  necessary  to  clear  the  bed  of  the  stream  from  time  to  time 
of  its  obstructions,  consisting  of  fallen  trees  and  shrubs  with  the 
entangled  rubbish.    With  the  increasing  pollution  of  the  stream, 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  NEPONSET  MEADOWS        295 

however,  another  and  more  persistent  interference  with  the 
current  became  operative.  The  waste  matters  of  human  life  and 
the  refuse  of  manufactories,  when  added  to  the  waters  of  the 
stream,  became  efficient  fertihzers  for  the  vegetable  substances 
that  find  a  home  there,  and  their  increased  quantity  became  a 
mechanical  hindrance  to  the  current,  promoted  deposits  in  the 
bed  of  the  stream,  and  finally,  by  their  decay,  gave  to  the  atmos- 
phere odors  which  common  experience  as  well  as  scientific 
knowledge  declare  to  be  injurious  to  health. 

An  accurate  estimate  of  the  amount  of  sickness  produced  by 
the  condition  of  these  meadows,  founded  upon  statistical  inquiry, 
is  almost  impossible,  and  largely  for  the  reason  that  the  common- 
sense  of  the  people  and  their  freedom  to  select  more  salubrious 
locations  have  prevented  settlements  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
these  low  lands.  We  find  here,  at  an  average  distance  of  thirteen 
miles  from  the  State  House,  an  area  of  more  than  eleven  square 
miles  which  is  uninhabited.  The  people  have  not  had  the  same 
objections  to  residence  near  the  great  salt  marshes  which  line  our 
coast,  where  the  conditions  of  flooding  and  soil  moisture  are 
apparently  as  serious  as  they  can  be  in  the  Neponset  valley,  but 
are  not  associated  with  a  seriously  polluted  water  or  excessive 
growth  and  decay  of  vegetable  matters. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  condition  of  these  meadows  and 
of  the  beds,  shores  and  waters  of  the  Neponset  River  is  injurious 
to  the  public  health.  The  opinions  of  the  physicians  of  this  dis- 
trict, as  ascertained  by  an  inquiry  instituted  by  the  Board,  are 
also  distinctly  to  the  effect  that  the  conditions  which  now  exist 
here  are  unfavorable  to  health  and  that  the  unhealthful  conditions 
are  increasing  in  amount  from  year  to  year. 

One  disease  has  attracted  considerable  attention  in  recent 
years  in  many  portions  of  this  state,  —  malarial  fever,  —  and 
portions  of  this  valley  have  suffered  from  it,  and  severely,  when 
the  limited  population  is  taken  into  account. 

One  farmhouse  was  found  not  far  removed  from  the  meadows, 
but  lying  many  feet  above  their  level,  which,  well  built  and  well 
cared  for,  had  failed  to  offer  adequate  protection  against  an 
influence  which,  originating  beyond  the  immediate  surroundings 


296  STATE  SANITATION 

of  the  house  itself,  was  sufhciently  potent  to  affect  more  than  half 
of  the  ten  occupants  of  the  house. 

We  find  that  malarial  diseases  are  uniformly  prevalent  in  the 
Neponset  basin,  though  no  distinct  concentration  of  cases  has 
been  anywhere  observed  except  in  the  case  of  the  farmhouse 
above  cited.  This  is  a  condition  of  things  which  points  distinctly 
to  some  influence  which  pervades  the  whole  district,  and  the 
obvious  origin  of  such  an  influence  is  the  condition  of  the  Fowl 
Meadows,  with  the  polluted  river  and  large  areas  of  stagnant 
water.  While  the  current  theories  upon  the  subject  of  malarial 
diseases  may  sufficiently  explain  the  occurrence  of  these  diseases 
in  a  marshy  region,  with  stagnating  water  and  the  inevitable 
accompaniment  of  decaying  vegetation,  we  are  well  aware  that 
future  scientific  examination  may  find  the  really  essential  factor 
in  some  hitherto  unsuspected  condition  of  such  territories.  But 
it  fortunately  is  true  that  malarial  diseases  where  once  prevalent 
have  disappeared  upon  the  removal  of  conditions  such  as  those 
now  found  through  the  Neponset  valley,  and  that  the  general 
healthfulness  has  been  distinctly  and  immediately  increased 
thereby. 

Attention  is  also  called  to  the  report  contained  in  the  appendix  ^ 
prepared  by  the  chemist  of  the  Board.  With  the  co-operation  of 
the  owners  of  the  larger  manufactories  on  the  river,  a  very  com- 
plete examination  has  been  made  of  methods  for  diminishing  the 
pollution  of  the  stream  by  treatment  of  the  efiiuents  from  these 
establishments,  and  it  has  been  found  that  these  effluents,  either 
by  themselves  or  when  mixed  with  ordinary  town  sewage,  can  be 
satisfactorily  purified  upon  properly  prepared  sand  filters.  It  is 
advisable,  however,  to  remove  by  sedimentation  from  the  factory 
effluent,  before  it  reaches  the  filter,  so  much  of  the  sludge  con- 
tained therein  as  is  possible.  This  sludge  can  be  removed  from 
the  sewage  by  means  of  a  settHng  basin  of  moderate  dimensions, 
and,  as  it  contains  much  more  nitrogen  than  ordinary  sewage, 
could  probably  be  readily  disposed  of. 

For  the  present,  at  least,  the  sparsely  settled  districts  adjoining 
the  meadows  do  not  appear  to  be  in  pressing  need  of  extended 
systems  of  sewage;  but  the  time  will  come  when  the  same  pro- 

^  This  is  not  reproduced. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  NEPONSET  MEADOWS         297 

vision  which  is  here  recommended  for  the  factory  refuse  should  be 
made  for  the  collection  and  purification  of  domestic  sewage. 
There  appear  to  be  in  the  valley  areas  of  land  suited  to  inter- 
mittent filtration,  and  sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  needs  of  the 
district. 

Portions  of  the  banks  of  the  stream  in  the  town  of  Hyde  Park 
are  at  present  in  an  unsanitary  condition;  but  legislation  sub- 
sequent to  that  authorizing  this  inquiry  by  the  Board  has  pro- 
vided a  sufficient  means  for  the  relief  of  this  state  of  things, 
through  the  construction  of  a  sewer  system  having  an  outlet  into 
the  metropolitan  system  of  sewerage. 

The  measures  which  we  recommend  for  the  remedy  of  the  con- 
ditions injurious  to  health  now  existing  in  the  Neponset  valley 
are  these :  — 

(i)  Such  additional  legislation  as  will  prevent  the  entrance 
into  this  stream  of  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  which  have 
not  been  satisfactorily  purified. 

(2)  The  permanent  removals  of  the  flashboards  of  the  dam 
of  the  Mattapan  Mills,  the  enlargement  of  the  cross-section  of  the 
river  at  points  indicated  on  Plan  No.  3,^  together  with  a  deepening 
and  reconstruction  of  the  channel  at  such  places  as  may  be  found 
necessary  for  making  a  channel  of  such  width  and  grade  as  will 
prevent  the  flooding  of  the  meadows  during  the  times  of  high 
flows  in  late  spring  and  summer. 

A  conservative  estimate  of  the  cost  of  making  this  improve- 
ment, irrespective  of  land  and  water  damages,  is,  in  round  num- 
bers, $125,000.  The  engineer  also  presents  some  figures  to  show 
the  increase  in  the  value  of  meadow  lands  reclaimed,  and  to  this 
sum  should  also  be  added  the  enhanced  value  of  the  now  neglected 
building  sites  immediately  adjoining  the  meadows.  It  can  thus 
be  demonstrated,  we  think,  that  the  work  of  improvement  would 
be  justifiable  from  a  money  standpoint  alone.  We  have  not 
considered  it  within  our  province  to  present  the  agricultural 
advantages  of  a  drainage  of  this  expanse  of  meadows.  Land  so 
well  adapted,  as  this  would  be  when  drained,  to  the  purposes  of 
market  gardening  must  always  have  a  value  near  a  great  market 
far  in  advance  of  any  price  now  paid  for  land  in  this  district. 

^  This  map  is  not  reproduced. 


298  STATE  SANITATION 

When  we  limit  ourselves,  however,  to  considerations  of  health, 
it  scarcely  seems  necessary,  now  that  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  state  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  depressing  and  dis- 
abling effects  of  malarial  diseases,  to  insist  upon  the  economical 
value  of  a  freedom  from  the  conditions  that  favor  their  preva- 
lence. We  do  not  hesitate,  therefore,  to  recommend  the  improve- 
ment of  this  district,  the  healthfulness  of  which  is  vital  to  the 
immediate  residents  therein,  as  well  as  to  the  occupants,  present 
and  future,  of  the  lands  lying  about  it. 

It  will  be  remembered  that,  in  accordance  with  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission,  legisla- 
tion was  had  now  embodied  in  chapter  375  of  the  Acts  of  1888. 
Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  the 
general  oversight  and  care  of  all  inland  waters.  The  commission 
which  suggested  the  legislation  above  referred  to  used  these 
words  in  their  report  to  the  Legislature  of  1886:  — 

Let  these  guardians  of  inland  waters  be  charged  to  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  actual  condition  of  all  waters  within  the  state  as  respects  their 
pollution  or  purity,  and  to  inform  themselves  particularly  as  to  the  relation 
which  that  condition  bears  to  the  health  and  well-being  of  any  part  of  the 
people  of  the  Commonwealth.  Let  them  do  away,  as  far  as  possible,  with 
all  remediable  pollution,  and  use  every  means  in  their  power  to  prevent 
further  vitiation.  They  shall  put  themselves  at  the  disposal  of  manufac- 
turers and  others  using  rivers,  streams  or  ponds,  or  in  any  way  misusing 
them,  to  suggest  the  best  means  of  minimizing  the  amount  of  dirt  in  their 
eflSuent,  and  to  experiment  upon  methods  of  reducing  or  avoiding  pollution. 
They  shall  warn  the  persistent  violator  of  all  reasonable  regulation  in  the 
management  of  water  of  the  consequences  of  his  acts.  In  a  word,  it  shall 
be  their  especial  function  to  guard  the  public  interest  and  the  public  health 
in  its  relation  with  water,  whether  pure  or  defiled,  with  the  ultimate  hope, 
which  must  never  be  abandoned,  that  sooner  or  later  ways  may  be  found  to 
redeem  and  preserve  all  the  waters  of  the  state. 

The  suggestions  contained  in  these  sentences  have  governed  the 
action  of  this  Board  during  the  ten  years  which  have  passed  since 
the  State  Board  of  Health  was  made  the  official  guardian  of  the 
inland  waters  of  the  Commonwealth.  It  is  our  opinion  that  all 
reasonable  efforts  have  been  exhausted  in  the  attempt  to  do  away 
with  the  remediable  pollution  of  these  waters,  and  that  the  time 
has  come  when  the  state  must  take  more  effective  measures  for 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  NEPONSET  MEADOWS         299 

the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  the  streams  not  now  used  as 
sources  of  domestic  water  supply,  but  still  capable  of  injurious 
effect  upon  the  pubUc  health. 

H.  P.  Walcott, 
H.  F.  Mills, 

F.  W.  Draper, 

G.  C.    TOBEY, 

J.  W.  Hull, 
C.  H.  Porter, 
J.  A.  Mead. 


XXVIII 

A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE  FOR  THE 
FIVE  YEARS  1893-97 

By  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott 

[Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott  was  not  only  an  efficient  secretary,  but  a  very  able  stat- 
istician. At  this  time  when  renewed  interest  is  being  taken  in  the  subject  of  vital 
statistics,  Dr.  Abbott's  study  of  life  tables  with  special  reference  to  Massachusetts 
is  worth  reviewing.     Thirtieth  Annual  Report,  1898,  p.  810.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

The  usefulness  of  life  tables  is  not  confined  to  the  work  of  life 
insurance.  A  life  table  also  serves  as  an  index  of  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  the  community  out  of  whose  data  it  is  constructed. 

Life  tables  differ  for  the  same  group  of  population  from  year  to 
year,  and  they  also  differ  when  calculated  from  the  statistics  of 
different  portions  of  a  group  of  inhabitants,  as,  for  example,  the 
city  of  Boston,  compared  with  any  of  the  outlying  districts 
beyond  its  borders. 

The  work  of  constructing  a  life  table  for  any  American  state  or 
city  is  necessarily  less  satisfactory  in  its  results  than  the  work  of 
making  a  similar  table  for  any  of  the  civilized  nations  or  com- 
munities of  Europe,  since  most  foreign  populations  are  much 
more  stationary  than  our  own. 

The  English  life  tables,  compiled  by  Dr.  Farr,  which  have 
proved  universally  useful  as  standards  of  good  work  in  this  direc- 
tion, were  usually  calculated  from  the  Hving  population  at  twa 
successive  census  enumerations  and  from  the  deaths  occurring  in 
the  intervening  period.  The  factor  of  migration,  however,  in  an 
American  state  affects  the  accuracy  of  such  a  calculation ;  hence 
a  somewhat  different  method  has  been  employed  in  constructing 
the  following  table,  and  a  shorter  period  of  five  years  has  been 
selected.  Massachusetts  has  an  advantage  not  enjoyed  by  many 
communities  in  having  an  intervening  state  census  five  years 
after  the  national  census,  and  this  advantage  is  especially  useful 
in  any  state  whose  population  is  far  from  stationary. 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE 


301 


The  materials  selected  as  the  basis  of  the  table  below  are  the 
census  of  1895,  and  the  deaths,  numbering  240,215,  which  were 
registered  in  the  state  in  the  five  years  1893,  1894,  1895,  1896,  and 
1907.  The  mid-year  of  this  period  (1895)  was  the  census  year, 
and  the  census  was  taken  very  near  the  middle  of  that  year  (in 

Table  50 
Population  or  Massachusetts,  1895,  and  Deaths,  1893-97 


Age  Periods 


Population,  1895 


Total 


Males 


Females 


Deaths,  1893-97 


Total 


Males        Females 


^5 

S-io 

10-15 

15-20 

20-25 

25-35 

35-45 

45-55 

55-65 

65-75 

75-85 

85-95 

Over  95 

Age  unknown. 


235,647- 
224,119 
202,900 
225,881 
265,983 
465,943 
341,535 
245,586 

157,651 
90,088 

35,405 

6,123 

308 

3,014 


118,4531 
112,296 

101,574 

110,565 

123,692 

227,630 

168,997 

118,417 

72,766 

41,040 

15,460 

2,180 

77 

1,554 


117,1941 

111,823 

101,326 

115,316 

142,291 

238,313 

172,538 

127,169 

84,885 

49,048 

19,945 

3,943 

231 

1,460 


78,779 

6,730 

3,460 

6,305 

9,982 

20,148 

18,832 

19,377 

22,334 

25,561 

20,547 

7,105 

559 
496 


42,710 
3,345 
1,655 
2,899 

4,899 

10,103 

9,619 

9,895 

11,278 

12,694 

9,675 

2,713 

152 

378 


36,069 

3,385 

1,805 

3,406 

5,083 

10,045 

9,222 

9,482 

11,056 

12,867 

10,872 

4,392 
407 
118 


Total 2,500,183    1,214,701    1,285,482 


240,215     122,006     118,209 


1  The  population  figures  in  this  line  (0-5)  were  not  used  in  the  construction  of  the  life  table,  but 
the  figures  employed  were  estimated  from  the  registered  births  and  the  deaths  under  5  years  of  age. 

the  months  of  May  and  June).  The  mean  annual  number  of 
deaths  at  each  age  is  compared  with  the  population  maintained 
at  such  age. 

The  limitations  which  affect  the  accuracy  of  a  Hfe  table  for 
Massachusetts  are  the  following:  — 

I.  The  Effect  of  Migration.  The  natural  increase  of  the  popu- 
lation, or  that  which  results  from  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths, 
has  for  many  years  constituted  only  a  portion  of  the  total  increase 
from  year  to  year.  The  census  enumerations  of  1890  and  1895 
showed  an  increase  of  261,240,  of  which  number  the  excess  of 
births  formed  only  36  per  cent,  the  balance,  64  per  cent,  being  the 


302  STATE  SANITATION 

difference  between  the  numbers  of  immigrants  and  emigrants;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  effect  of  migration  exceeded  that  of  natural 
increase  in  the  ratio  of  nearly  2  to  i. 

Moreover,  the  increment  by  means  of  immigration  is  not  uni- 
form at  the  different  age  periods,  fully  one-half  of  the  immigrants 
being  between  fifteen  and  thirty  years  of  age,  while  the  numbers 
at  the  extremes  of  life  are  comparatively  small. 

Table  50  presents  the  classified  material  out  of  which  the  life 
table  is  constructed. 

2.  Defects  of  the  Census.  Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  in  a  paper  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Publications  of  the  American  Statistical  Asso- 
ciation "  (Vol.  IV,  p.  99),  estimates  a  "  shortage  in  the  census  of 
1890  of  negro  children  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  million,"  and  of  the 
native  white  children  "  about  the  same."  If  this  be  correct,  the 
entire  shortage  or  deficiency  in  the  total  population,  including 
that  among  foreign  whites,  must  leave  at  least  a  million  unac- 
counted for  in  the  United  States. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  last  two  census  enumerations  of 
Massachusetts  (those  of  1890  and  1895)  shows  that  Mr.  Gan- 
nett's  estimate  is  probably  none  too  large.^ 

It  is  possible  to  supply  the  actual  deficiency  for  the  first  four  or 
five  years  of  life,  with  some  degree  of  accuracy,  from  the  registered 
births;  but  beyond  this  period  of  Hfe  it  is  hardly  practicable  to 
make  estimates  which  are  of  greater  value  than  mere  conjectures. 

3.  The  Practice  of  incorrectly  reporting  the  Ages  of  the  Living 
and  the  Dead.  This  error  is  of  two  kinds :  {a)  It  invariably  hap- 
pens that  greater  numbers  of  persons  are  reported  at  the  even 
ages,  20,  30,  40,  etc.  (both  of  the  living  and  the  dead),  than  at  19, 
21,  29,  31,  etc.,  in  consequence  of  the  common  habit  of  using 
round  numbers  instead  of  giving  the  more  accurate  ages.  This  is 
in  a  measure  eliminated  by  employing  the  periods  used  in  Eng- 
land, 25-35,  35-45,  etc.,  instead  of  20-30,  30-40.  (&)  The  habit, 
especially  noted  among  unmarried  females,  of  understating  the 
ages  of  the  living.    This  appears  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  be  a 

^  Mr.  E.  B.  Elliott  also  assumes  an  approximate  shortage  for  the  first  five  years 
of  life  alone  of  100,000  in  the  United  States  census  of  1870.  Volume  on  "  Vital 
Statistics,"  p.  522. 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE  303 

common  practice  in  all  countries  where  census  enumerations  are 
made, 

4.  Defects  in  Birth  and  Death  Registration.  These  defects,  so 
far  as  Massachusetts  is  concerned,  are  probably  insignificant,  and 
in  this  respect  the  material  collected  by  the  registration  officers 
of  cities  and  towns  compares  favorably  in  its  accuracy  with  that 
of  foreign  nations  and  communities  having  estabHshed  systems  of 
registration.  Great  pains  are  taken  in  most  of  the  municipalities 
to  obtain  accurate  and  full  returns,  since  a  pro  rata  fee  is  allowed 
to  the  local  officers  for  them;  moreover,  the  certifiers  of  births 
and  deaths  (physicians,  midwives,  and  undertakers)  are  com- 
pelled, under  penalty,  to  comply  with  the  statutes  requiring  such 
returns. 

There  is  also  a  comparatively  small  number  of  persons  included 
in  the  census  whose  sex  and  ages  are  unknown,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  registered  deaths,  the  latter  being  probably  mostly 
deaths  of  prematurely  born  infants,  and  a  small  number  of  bodies 
of  unknown  persons  found  dead. 

Certain  comments  and  explanatory  statements  are  necessary 
in  relation  to  the  construction  of  the  tables  which  follow. 

The  figures  for  the  first  five  years  of  fife  have  been  compiled 
from  the  births,  and  from  the  deaths  which  occurred  among 
children  under  five  years  of  age.  The  census  figures  for  these  five 
years  were  disregarded,  for  the  reasons  aheady  stated  in  former 
reports,  and  in  accordance  with  the  common  usage  in  other 
countries.^ 

Dr.  Farr  says,  in  regard  to  this  subject:  "  We  can  scarcely  feel 
surprised  to  find,  in  the  various  censuses  of  Europe,  errors  in  the 
statements  of  age,  traceable  to  ambiguities  of  language.  In  the 
early  years  of  life  these  mistakes  demand  attention,  otherwise 
they  may  lead  us  into  such  grave  mistakes  as  we  have  to  notice." 
These  well-known  defects  may  be  corrected  without  serious 
difficulty  for  the  first  years  of  life. 

An  exact  and  accurate  life  table  of  any  population  or  com- 
mimity  can  be  made  only  by  taking  a  definite  number  of  persons^ 

1  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  p.  liv;  also 
Dr.  Farr's  "  Vital  Statistics,"  Memorial  volume,  p.  207. 


304  STATE  SANITATION 

say  100,000  or  1,000,000  at  birth,  and  following  their  life  history, 
noting  the  age  of  each  person  at  death,  until  the  entire  number 
has  ceased  to  live.  Such  a  process  is  impossible,  especially  in  an 
American  community,  subject,  as  it  is,  to  the  variable  effect  of 
migration. 

In  view  of  this  manifest  impossibiHty,  it  is  therefore  necessary 
to  construct  an  approximate  table  from  such  data  as  are  acces- 
sible, bearing  in  mind  the  limitations,  to  which  reference  has  been 
made,  and  making  such  corrections  of  errors  as  are  customary 
in  the  construction  of  similar  life  tables  for  other  communities. 
Starting  with  a  h5^othetical  1,000,000  or  100,000  births,  this 
generation  of  persons  of  both  sexes  may  be  followed,  with  a 
reasonable  degree  of  accuracy,  to  the  extinction  of  the  last  sur- 
vivor, at  the  age  of  one  hundred  or  more,  by  the  application  of  the 
rules  which  it  is  customary  to  employ.  In  the  case  of  Massa- 
chusetts, we  have  selected  the  number  100,000  as  the  basis  of  the 
table,  since  this  is  the  largest  round  number  near  the  exact  num- 
ber of  annual  births  in  the  state.  The  sexes  at  the  time  of  birth 
are  unequally  distributed,  the  males  being  in  the  ratio  of  51.350 
and  the  females  48.650  out  of  each  100,000  born  during  the  period 
selected  for  the  construction  of  the  table.  These  numbers  are 
therefore  taken  as  the  numbers  at  birth  of  the  two  sexes,  out  of  the 
hypothetical  100,000  born. 

In  order  to  ehminate  the  effects  of  epidemic  years  or  of  abnor- 
mal conditions  existing  in  the  census  year  1905,  the  mean  annual 
deaths  of  the  five  years,  1893-97,  are  employed  to  obtain  the 
death-rates  at  each  year  of  life.  In  the  English  Ufe  tables  it  has 
been  customary  to  estimate  the  population  at  the  middle  of  a 
given  year  for  life-table  purposes,  the  census  being  taken  on  the 
first  of  April.  The  State  census  of  Massachusetts  being  taken 
at  a  time  quite  near  the  middle  of  the  year,  no  allowance  has 
been  made  for  the  few  days  elapsing  between  the  time  of  such 
taking  and  the  mid-year,  since  such  allowance  would  at  most 
only  affect  the  second  place  of  decimals  in  a  death-rate  expressed 
as  a  ratio  per  i  ,000  Uving  of  a  given  age.  Moreover,  the  popula- 
tion enumerated  in  May,  near  the  middle  of  a  five-year  period, 
differs  much  less  from  the  actual  mean  than  that  which  is  taken 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE  305 

near  the  middle  of  a  ten-year  period,  as  compared  with  a  mean 
of  the  two  extremes  of  such  period. 

Dr.  Billings  says,  in  his  introductory  remarks  in  the  twelfth 
volume  of  the  tenth  census,  1880  (page  cxliii) :  "  The  preparation 
for  any  given  locality,  race  or  occupation,  in  this  country,  of  a  life 
table  which  shall  accurately  represent  the  tendency  to  death  or 
the  probability  of  survival  at  each  age,  is  practically  impossible, 
because  of  the  want  of  accuracy  in  the  necessary  data,  and  because 
of  the  irregular  migrations  of  the  population.  It  should  be  clearly 
understood  that  all  tables  of  vital  statistics,  including  data 
derived  from  large  numbers  of  people,  even  when  these  are 
obtained  by  the  most  accurate  census  possible,  and  by  the  most 
complete  system  of  registration  which  can  be  enforced,  give 
probabilities  only,  and  that  scientific  accuracy  in  this  field  is 
practically  unattainable."  The  foregoing  remarks  apply  with 
less  force  to  Massachusetts  than  to  the  United  States  as  a  whole, 
since  our  own  state  has  had  a  system  of  registration  in  existence 
since  1842,  the  results  of  which  may  now  be  considered  as  fairly 
accurate.  Dr.  BilUngs  therefore  publishes  an  approximate  life 
table  in  the  volume  referred  to  for  Massachusetts  and  for  certain 
other  communities,  from  such  data  as  were  obtainable  for  the 
census  year  1880. 

In  the  life  table  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  it  as  accurate 
as  possible  from  the  data  at  hand.  The  compiler  is  entirely 
responsible  for  whatever  errors  or  inaccuracies  it  may  contain. 

One  hundred  thousand  infants,  followed  throughout  their  first 
year  during  the  period  named,  in  Massachusetts,  3deld  90,250 
years  of  life.  To  obtain  this  mean  of  the  infants  living  through- 
out the  first  year,  the  following  method  was  employed :  — 

All  of  the  deaths  of  infants  imder  one  month  old  which  occurred 
in  the  years  1893-97  were  tabulated  from  the  mortality  returns  in 
the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  also  those  of  infants  who  died 
in  the  second  and  the  third  month  of  Hfe  separately,  then  those  of 
infants  who  died  in  the  three  succeeding  months  of  life  (3-6)  in 
one  group,  and  then  those  who  died  in  the  succeeding  six  months 
in  another  group.  From  these  data,  and  from  the  births  registered 
in  the  five  years  ending  with  June  30,  1897,  the  figures  for  the 


3o6 


STATE  SANITATION 


first  year  of  life  were  calculated  after  the  method  shown  by  Dr. 
Farr  in  his  life  table  No.  3,  page  xxiii. 

The  foregoing  mean,  90,250  (the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  series 
Iq,  l^,  %  .  .  .  ^i),is  used  as  the  first  term  of  column  P  (see  tables  53 
and  54) .  All  of  the  succeeding  terms  in  the  column  for  the  years 
I,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  are  the  means  of  the  terms  in  the  preceding  col- 
umn Ix,  using  the  formula  P^  =— ^^  • 

The  total  number  of  persons  living  under  five  years  of  age  in  the 
state  in  1895,  as  stated  by  the  census,  was  235,647 ;  but  the 
number  as  calculated  from  the  living  births  in  these  years  was 
294,604,  or  58,957  more  than  the  figures  of  the  census  would 
indicate.  No  allowance  is  made  in  this  estimate  for  migration, 
which  would  slightly  increase  the  difference.  The  effect  of  migra- 
tion at  this  period  of  Ufe,  however,  is  much  less  than  at  later 
ages,  especially  from  fifteen  to  thirty  years. 

Table  51 

Population  under  5  Years 


State  Census  of  1895 

Calculated  from 
the  Births  and 
Deaths  under  s 

Difference 

Males 

ii8,4S3 
117,194 

149,582 
145,022 

31,129 
27,828 

Females 

235,647 

294,604 

58,957 

Description  of  the  Tables 

In  tables  53  and  54,  column  x,  ages,  presents  the  ages  for  each 
sex  from  birth  up  to  100  years. 

Column  dx  presents  the  numbers  of  those  dying  in  each  age  of 
life  for  each  sex. 

Column  4  presents  the  survivors  of  each  sex,  out  of  100,000  of 
both  sexes,  at  each  age  of  life,  beginning  with  51,350  males  and 
48,650  females  at  birth. 

Colunrn  Px  presents  the  population  maintained  by  the  numbers 
in  column  L. 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE  307 

Column  Qx  shows  the  aggregate  number  of  years  which  the  per- 
sons at  each  age  in  the  table  will  live,  until  their  extinction  by 
death. 

Column  Ejc{  =  j^)  is  the  mean  future  life  time  of  the  persons 

living  at  each  age  in  the  table,  the  expectation  of  life. 

Column  Wa;  (Table  55),  the  mortality  column,  presents  the  mor- 
tality per  unit  of  the  population  at  each  age  of  life,  the  figures 
being  obtained  by  dividing  the  deaths  in  each  age  by  the  popula- 
tion at  such  ages,  the  proper  corrections  and  interpolations  having 
been  applied.  From  this  column  (w^)  the  probability  of  living 
at  each  year  of  age  {px)  (Table  55)  is  obtained  by  the  formula 

px  = applied  to  each  year  of  the  series. 

Column  Ix  is  obtained  by  the  formula  lxXpx=  Ix+i,  and  column 

Px  is  obtained  by  the  formula ^^• 

2 

What  may  be  learned  from  these  Tables 

It  appears  that,  out  of  100,000  children  bom  aUve  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1895,  16,000,  or  nearly  one-sixth,  die  before  arriving 
at  the  age  of  one  year;  78,963,  or  nearly  four-fifths,  attain  the  age 
of  three  years;  77,051  survive  the  age  of  five  years,  or  77  per 
cent;  50,126,  or  a  little  more  than  one-half,  attain  the  age  of 
fifty- three  years;  25,406,  or  a  little  more  than  one-fourth,  live  to 
the  age  of  seventy-two  years. 

These  figures  present  very  decided  differences  as  compared 
with  those  which  were  pubKshed  for  1855  by  Mr.  E.  B.  Elhott 
(Sixteenth  Massachusetts  Registration  Report,  1857).  In  those 
reports  it  was  shown  that  the  numbers  dying  before  the  close  of 
the  first  year  out  of  100,000  bom  were  15,510,  or  very  nearly  the 
same  as  those  for  the  year  1895  ^^r  the  same  age.  At  the  end  of 
three  years  the  survivors  were  only  74  per  cent,  instead  of  79  per 
cent,  as  in  1895,  and  that  one-half  had  died  before  the  close  of  the 
forty-first  year,  instead  of  surviving  to  the  fifty- third,  as  in  1895. 

In  consequence  of  the  fact  that  the  numbers  of  each  sex  are 
unequal  at  birth,  the  males  continue  in  greater  numbers  until  the 


3o8  STATE  SANITATION 

fifty-third  year,  when  the  greater  death-rate  of  the  males  has 
reduced  their  number  below  that  of  the  females,  and  the  females 
continue  in  excess  throughout  the  remainder  of  Hfe.  Observing 
the  table  more  closely,  it  appears  that  the  comparative  intensity 
of  the  death-rate  of  the  sexes  varies  at  different  points  in  the  table. 
For  the  first  five  years  the  death-rate  of  males  exceeds  that  of 
females.  From  age  five  to  age  nineteen  inclusive  the  rate  of 
females  exceeds  that  of  males,  and  from  age  twenty  to  the  end 
of  life  the  death-rate  of  females  is  less  than  that  of  males. 

In  Table  55  are  presented  two  columns  in  which  are  shown  the 
probabiHty  of  living  one  year  from  each  age  and  the  mortality  per 
unit  of  the  population  at  each  year.  At  birth  the  probability  of 
Uving  a  year  is  for  males  .82569  and  for  females  .84939,  that  of 
boys  at  birth  being  about  the  same  as  for  men  of  eighty-six,  and 
that  of  girls  about  the  same  as  that  of  women  at  eighty-six  or 
eighty-seven. 

The  probability  of  Hving  a  year  is  at  its  highest  point  for  boys 
at  age  twelve  (.99722),  and  for  girls  it  is  about  the  same  for  age 
eleven  as  at  age  twelve  (.99695  and  .99693). 

A  comparison  of  the  death-rates  of  Massachusetts  at  different 
periods  presents  certain  points  worthy  of  notice. 

The  death-rate  of  children  under  five  and  especially  of  those 
under  one  year  of  age  has  not  undergone  very  marked  changes 
(see  table);  but  that  of  all  ages  from  five  to  forty  has  very  per- 
ceptibly diminished,  while  that  of  ages  above  forty  has  increased. 
This  result  has  been  produced  by  the  great  reduction  in  the  num- 
ber of  deaths  from  infectious  diseases,  including  consumption, 
which  occur  in  the  early  period  of  life,  from  two  years  up  to  thirty. 
By  this  means  a  much  larger  ratio  of  the  population  than  formerly 
survives  to  live  throughout  the  useful  and  wage-earning  period  of 
life.  This  causes  a  material  increase  in  the  number  of  years  lived 
at  the  later  ages  of  life. 

■  These  persons  being  spared  from  the  diseases  incident  to  child- 
hood, the  relative  mortality  from  the  diseases  of  adult  Hfe  of  old 
age  is  naturally  increased. 

This  decided  increase  in  the  number  of  survivors  throughout 
the  useful  ages  of  life  has  a  marked  effect  upon  the  vitality  of  the 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE  309 

population.  It  is  undoubtedly  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
increased  attention  which  has  everywhere  been  given  in  the  past 
twenty-five  years  to  public  hygiene. 

The  population  of  almost  any  one  of  the  United  States  differs 
essentially  from  the  more  stationary  populations  of  the  old  world 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  constantly  being  recruited  by  the  addition  of 
considerable  numbers  of  immigrants  at  the  healthy  ages  of  life. 
These  additions  constitute  a  selected  class,  not  only  on  account  of 
their  age  distribution  (50  per  cent  are  between  the  ages  of  fifteen 
and  thirty),  but  also  because  many  of  the  weaklings  must  be  left 
behind,  in  consequence  not  only  of  their  inabihty  to  become  wage- 
earners  but  on  account  of  the  exclusive  action  of  the  immigration 
laws.^ 

One  consequence  of  this  is  the  comparatively  large  number  of 
persons  at  the  later  ages  of  Hfe,  an  effect  which  has  been  produced 
by  the  long  continuance  of  immigration. 

The  table  and  diagram  below  present  the  numbers  of  sur- 
vivors at  each  of  several  age  periods  in  Sweden,  England,  Spain, 
and  Massachusetts  (in  the  latter  for  the  year  1855  and  for  the 
period  of  1893-97) .  Sweden  is  selected  as  a  country  having  a  very- 
low  death-rate,  and  also  because  it  is  occasionally  selected  as  a 
standard  of  a  healthy  population.  Spain,  on  the  contrary,  has  a 
high  death-rate,  chiefly  due  to  excessive  mortality  in  the  early 
years  of  life. 

In  consequence  of  the  close  contiguity  of  the  lines  in  the  first 
five  years  of  life,  the  figures  for  the  first  five  years  are  given  upon 
a  separate  diagram,  in  which  the  divisions  representing  the  age- 
periods  are  increased  tenfold. 

A  brief  review  of  the  life  tables  of  Massachusetts  shows  that 
quite  marked  changes  have  taken  place  from  year  to  year  in  the 
life  history  of  the  population. 

The  earliest  life  table  in  existence  pertaining  to  the  population 
of  Massachusetts  is  that  of  Edward  Wigglesworth,  D.D.,  of  Har- 
vard University,  made  from  records  of  bills  of  mortahty  collected 

1  "  If  on  examination  there  shall  be  found  among  such  passengers  any  convict, 
limatic,  idiot  or  any  person  unable  to  take  care  of  himself  or  herself,  without  becom- 
ing a  public  charge,  .  .  .  such  person  shaU  not  be  permitted  to  land."  (Extract 
from  immigration  act  of  August  3,  1882,  section  2.) 


3ib 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  52 

Data  for  Construction  of  Diagram  of  Survivors 
Table  showing  Survivors  at  Different  Ages  of  Life  out  of  10,000  born 


Sweden  ^ 
1881-90 

England  and 
Wales' 
1881-90 

Massachu- 
setts 
1893-97 

Massachu- 
setts s 
185s 

Spain  * 
1878-82 

10,000 

10,000 

10,000 

10,000 

10,000 

8,89s 

8,536 

8,400 

8,449 

8,083 

8,586 

8,067 

8,054 

7,733 

7,060 

8,399 

7,878 

7,896 

7,424 

6,433 

8,258 

7,758 

7,786 

7,258 

6,151 

7,882 

7,495 

7,487 

6,873 

5,747 

7,713 

7,423 

7,366 

6,726 

5,602 

7,551 

7,281 

7,167 

6,437 

5,413 

7,338 

7,090 

6,906 

6,100 

5,164 

7,109 

6,844 

6,615 

5,748 

4,908 

6,876 

6,550 

■  6,308 

5,408 

4,596 

6,628 

6,216 

5,988 

5,078 

4,378 

6,349 

5,839 

5,651 

4,748 

4,088 

6,043 

5,405 

5,275 

4,409 

3,765 

5,687 

4,891 

4,821 

4,022 

3,381 

5,239 

4,275 

4,272 

3,597 

2,914 

4,658 

3,534 

3,622 

3,065 

2,327 

3,900 

2,684 

2,869 

2,475 

1,666 

2,948 

1,786 

2,042 

1,833 

997 

1,872 

970 

1,266 

1,059 

465 

894 

388 

654 

437 

149 

275 

100 

259 

118 

40 

14 

67 

20.5 

•9 

9 

2.2 

3 

4 

10 

IS 

20 

25 
30 
35 
40 

45 
SO 
55 
60 

65 
70 

75 
80 

8S 
90 

95 
100 


1  For  convenience  of  comparison  with  Mr.  Elliott's  table  of  1855,  the  figiires  of  this  table  are  re- 
duced to  a  scale  of  10,000,  while  the  diagram  is  made  upon  a  scale  of  100,000. 

*  Fifty-fifth  Report  of  Registrar  General.    Supplement,  vol.  i,  p.  xiv.    Vol.  10,  part  i,  p.  75. 
3  Sixteenth  Registration  Report,  Massachusetts,  1857. 

*  Bulletin  de  I'lnstitut  international  de  statisque. 

Note.  —  In  consequence  of  corrections  made  after  the  construction  of  the  diagram,  the  line  for 
Massachusetts  survivors,  1893-97,  should  be  placed  one  to  two  millimeters  lower,  after  age  15. 

prior  to  1789.^    The  total  number  of  deaths  employed  in  the 
construction  of  this  table  was  4,893. 

Its  defects  consisted  mainly  in  the  limited  numbers  used  for 
computation,  in  the  crude  method  of  recording  the  ages  of  the 

1  Published  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Academy, 
1793- 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE 


311 


Fig.  17 


312  STATE  SANITATION 

population  by  the  first  census  (in  five  periods  only,  all  under  lo, 
10-16,  16-26,  26-45,  ^^^  ^^^  ^'^^^  45)'  ^^^  i^  t^^  f^^t  t^^t  t^^ 
table  was  framed  on  the  assumption  of  a  stationary  population. 
This  table  was  for  many  years  an  authority  in  the  courts  of  the 
Commonwealth . 

In  1855  a  table  for  Massachusetts  was  published  in  the  Six- 
teenth Registration  Report  (1857)  by  the  eminent  statistician, 
Mr.  E.  B.  Elliott.  This  table  is  calculated  from  16,086  deaths, 
which  occurred  in  166  towns  of  Massachusetts  in  the  year  1855.^ 

In  the  tenth  census  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  12,  part  2,  pp. 
773-791,  Dr.  BilHngs  publishes  approximate  Hfe  tables  for  the 
population  of  Massachusetts  and  other  states,  and  for  certain 
cities.  Those  of  Massachusetts  are  for  the  white  population  of 
the  state,  and  for  the  census  year  1880,  comprising  31,341  deaths, 
and  also  for  the  whole  population  of  the  state  for  the  five  years 
ended  June  30,  1882,  and  comprising  171,639  deaths. 

The  statement  of  Dr.  Josiah  Curtis  in  the  Sixteenth  Registra- 
tion Report  of  Massachusetts  (1857)  ^  ^s  to  the  value  of  life  tables 
is  worthy  of  note.  He  says:  "  There  are  weightier  reasons  for 
desiring  correct  information  concerning  the  comparative  mor- 
tahty  of  our  communities.  The  governing  powers  and  enlight- 
ened statesmen  are  enabled  better  to  discharge  their  high  and 
responsible  duties  to  the  people  by  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
physical  powers,  possessions  and  resources  of  the  inhabitants.  .  .  . 
The  Christian  philanthropist  and  sanitarian  will  be  enabled  to 
give  some  definiteness  and  efficiency  to  their  labors,  by  a  correct 
knowledge  of  where,  and  to  what  purpose,  the  laws  which  prevail 
over  Hfe  and  death  teach  them  to  direct  their  laudable  efforts. 
The  question  here  forcibly  arises,  Have  the  records  of  registration 
in  Massachusetts,  or  in  any  considerable  portion  thereof,  ever 
been  sufficiently  complete  to  enable  any  one  to  determine  with 
reliable  accuracy  what  law  or  laws  do  prevail  over  the  mortality 

^  The  calculation  was  limited  to  the  returns  of  these  166  towns,  since  the  system 
of  registration  then  in  practice  in  the  state  was  not  believed  to  be  "  sufficiently  com- 
plete to  furnish  data  for  a  life  table  for  the  whole  state."  These  166  towns  consti- 
tuted two-thirds  of  the  population  of  the  state  in  1855  (Sixteenth  Registration 
Report,  Massachusetts,  p.  199). 

2  P.  197. 


A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE 


313 


Table  53 


Massachusetts  Lite  Table.     Based  on  the  Mortality  of  the 
Five  Years,  1893-97 

Males 


Age 

Dying 

in 
Each 

Born 

and 

Surviv- 

Popula- 
tion or 
Years 
of  Life 
lived  in 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Years  of 

Life  Livec 

in  and 

above 

Expec- 
tation 
of  Life 
at 

Age 

Dying 

in 
Each 

Bom 

and 

Surviv- 

Popula- 
tion or 

Years 
of  Life 
lived  in 

Each 
Year  of 

Age 

Years  of 

Life  Lived 

in  and 

above 

Expec- 
tation 
of  Life 
at 

Year 
of  Age 

ing  at 
Each 
Age 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Each 
Year 
of  Age 

Year 
of  Age 

ing  at 
Each 
Age 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Each 

Year 

of  Age 

X. 

4. 

/x. 

P.. 

Qs. 

E,. 

X. 

d,. 

h. 

P.. 

(?x. 

E,. 

0 

8,849 

51,350 

46,343 

2,264,048 

44.09 

SO 

448 

26,459 

26,23s 

543,144 

20.53 

I 

1,794 

42,501 

41,604 

2,217,70s 

52.18 

51 

466 

26,011 

25,778 

516,909 

19-87 

2 

818 

40,707 

40,298 

2,176,101 

53.46 

52 

483 

25,545 

25,303 

491,131 

19-23 

3 

559 

39,889 

39,609 

2,135,803 

53-54 

53 

S02 

25,062 

24,811 

465,828 

18-59 

4 

424 

39.330 

39,118 

2,096,194 

S3-30 

54 

520 

24,560 

24,300 

441,017 

17-96 

5 

316 

38,906 

38,748 

2,057,076 

52.88 

55 

539 

24.040 

23,770 

416,717 

17-33 

6 

252 

38,590 

38,464 

2,018,328 

52.30 

S6 

561 

23,501 

23,220 

392,947 

16.72 

7 

20s 

38,338 

38,235 

1,979,864 

51.64 

57 

58s 

22,940 

22,647 

369,727 

16.12 

8 

170 

38,133 

38,048 

1,941,629 

50.92 

58 

608 

22,355 

22,051 

347,080 

15-53 

9 

146 

37,963 

37,890 

1,903,581 

50.14 

59 

636 

21,747 

21,429 

325,029 

14-95 

10 

123 

37,817 

37,755 

1,865,691 

49-33 

60 

659 

21,111 

20,781 

303,600 

14-38 

11 

110 

37,694 

37,639 

1,827,936 

48.49 

6i 

677 

20,452 

20,113 

282,819 

13-83 

12 

104 

37,584 

37,532 

1,790,297 

47.63 

62 

691 

19,775 

19,429 

262,706 

13-28 

13 

III 

37,480 

37,424 

1,752,765 

46.76 

63 

709 

19,084 

18,729 

243,277 

12-75 

14 

135 

37,369 

37,301 

1,715,341 

45-90 

64 

729 

18,375 

18,010 

224,548 

12.22 

IS 

159 

37,234 

37,154 

1,678,040 

4S-07 

65 

748 

17,646 

17,272 

206,538 

11.70 

16 

181 

37,075 

36,984 

1,640,886 

44.26 

66 

769 

16,898 

16,513 

189,266 

11.20 

17 

195 

36,894 

36,796 

1,603,902 

43-47 

67 

789 

16,129 

15,734 

172,753 

10.71 

18 

211 

36,699 

36,593 

1,567,106 

42.70 

68 

810 

15,340 

14,935 

157,019 

10.24 

19 

226 

36,488 

36,37s 

1,530,513 

41-94 

69 

827 

14,530 

14,116 

142,084 

9.78 

20 

241 

36,262 

36,141 

1,494,138 

41.20 

70 

840 

13,703 

13,283 

127,968 

9-34 

21 

255 

36,021 

35,893 

1,457,997 

40.48 

71 

845 

12,863 

12,440 

114,685 

8.92 

22 

268 

35,766 

35,632 

1,422,104 

39-76 

72 

847 

12,018 

11,594 

102,24s 

8.51 

23 

280 

35,498 

35,358 

1,386,472 

39-o6 

73 

842 

11,171 

10,750 

90,651 

8.11 

24 

289 

3S,2i8 

35,073 

1,351,114 

38.36 

74 

831 

10,329 

9,913 

79,901 

7.74 

25 

296 

34,929 

34,781 

1,316,041 

37.68 

75 

816 

9,498 

9,090 

69,988 

7-37 

26 

301 

34,633 

34,482 

1,281,260 

37.00 

76 

794 

8,682 

8,285 

60,898 

7.01 

27 

30s 

34,332 

34,179 

1,246,778 

36.32 

77 

769 

7,888 

7,503 

52,613 

6.67 

28 

309 

34,027 

33,872 

1,212,599 

35.64 

78 

741 

7,119 

6,748 

45,110 

6-34 

29 

313 

33,718 

33,561 

1,178,727 

34-96 

79 

707 

6,378 

6,024 

38,362 

6.01 

30 

316 

33,405 

33,247 

1,145,166 

34-28 

80 

672 

5,671 

5,335 

32,338 

5-70 

31 

318 

33,089 

32,930 

1,111,919 

33-60 

81 

632 

4,999 

4,683 

27,003 

5-40 

32 

319 

32,771 

32,611 

1,078,989 

32-93 

82 

S90 

4,367 

4,072 

22,320 

5-11 

33 

319 

32,452 

32,292 

1,046,378 

32.24 

83 

546 

3,777 

3,504 

18,248 

4-83 

34 

320 

32,133 

31,973 

1,014,086 

31-56 

84 

499 

3,231 

2,981 

14,744 

4-56 

3S 

322 

31,813 

31,652 

982,113 

30-87 

85 

452 

2,732 

2,506 

11,763 

4-31 

36 

325 

31,491 

31,328 

950,461 

30-18 

86 

402 

2,280 

2,079 

9,257 

4.06 

37 

328 

31,166 

3 1 ,002 

919,133 

29-49 

87 

353 

1,878 

1,701 

7,178 

3.82 

38 

331 

30,838 

30,672 

888,131 

28.80 

88 

307 

1,525 

1,371 

5,477 

3-59 

39 

334 

30,507 

30,340 

857,459 

28.11 

89 

263 

1,218 

1,086 

4,106 

3-37 

40 

337 

30,173 

30,004 

827,119 

27.41 

90 

220 

955 

845 

3,020 

3-16 

41 

341 

29,836 

29,665 

797,115 

26.72 

91 

181 

735 

644 

2,175 

2.96 

42 

346 

29,495 

29,322 

767,450 

26.02 

92 

146 

554 

481 

1,531 

2.76 

43 

352 

29,149 

28,973 

738,128 

25-32 

93 

116 

408 

350 

1,050 

2.57 

44 

359 

28,797 

28,617 

709,155 

24-63 

94 

88 

292 

248 

700 

2.40 

45 

368 

28,438 

28,254 

680,538 

2393 

95 

66 

204 

171 

452 

2.22 

46 

379 

28,070 

27,880 

652,284 

23.24 

96 

48 

138 

114 

281 

2.04 

47 

393 

27,691 

27,494 

624,404 

22.55 

97 

33 

90 

73 

167 

1.86 

48 

410 

27,298 

27,093 

596,910 

21.87 

98 

23 

57 

45 

94 

1.6s 

49 

429 

26,888 

26,673 

569,817 

21.19 

99 

IS 

34 

26 

49 

1.44 

100 

9 

19 

14 

23 

1. 21 

314 


STATE  SANITATION 


Table  54 

Massachusetts  Life  Table.     Based  on  the  Mortality  of  the 
Five  Years,  1893-97 

Females 


Age 

Dying 

in 
Each 
Year 

of  Age 

Bom 

and 
Surviv- 
ing at 
Each 
Age 

Popula- 
tion or 

Years 
of  Life 
lived  in 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Years  of 

Life  Lived 

in  and 

above 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Expec- 
tation 
of  Life 
at 
Each 
Year 
of  Age 

Age 

Dying 

in 
Each 
Year 

of  Age 

Bom 

and 
Surviv- 
ing at 

Each 

Age 

Popula- 
tion or 
Years 
of  Life 
lived  in 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Years  of 

Life  Lived 

in  and 

above 

Each 

Year  of 

Age 

Expec- 
tation 

of  Life 

at 

Each 

Year 

of  Age 

X. 

4. 

k. 

P.. 

Qx. 

£.. 

X. 

4. 

I.. 

P.. 

Qx. 

E.. 

0 

7,iSi 

48,650 

43.907 

2,267,469 

46.61 

50 

395 

26,292 

26,094 

581,072 

22.10 

I 

1,662 

41,499 

40,668 

2,223,562 

53.58 

51 

410 

25,897 

25,692 

554,978 

21.43 

a 

763 

39,837 

39.455 

2,182,894 

54-79 

52 

423 

25,487 

25,275 

529,286 

20.77 

3 

544 

39.074 

38,802 

2,143,439 

54.83 

53 

437 

25,064 

24,84s 

504,011 

20.11 

4 

385 

38,530 

38,337 

2,104,637 

54.62 

54 

457 

24,627 

24,398 

479,166 

19.46 

S 

318 

38,145 

37,986 

2,066,300 

54.17 

55 

■  476 

24,170 

23,932 

454.768 

18.81 

6 

250 

37,827 

37,702 

2,028,314 

53.62 

S6 

494 

23,694 

23,447 

430,836 

18.18 

7 

206 

37.577 

37,474 

1,990,612 

52.97 

57 

512 

23,200 

22,944 

407,389 

17.56 

8 

170 

37,371 

37,286 

1,953,138 

52.26 

S8 

530 

22,688 

22,423 

384,44s 

16.9s 

9 

147 

37,201 

37,127 

1,915,852 

51.50 

59 

SSO 

22,158 

21,883 

362,022 

16.34 

10 

129 

37.054 

26,990 

1,878,72s 

50.70 

60 

572 

21,608 

21,322 

340,139 

15.74 

II 

113 

36,925 

36,868 

1,841,735 

49.88 

61 

588 

21,036 

20,742 

318,817 

15.16 

12 

113 

36,812 

36,755 

1,804,867 

49.03 

62 

606 

20,448 

20,145 

298,07s 

14.58 

13 

123 

36,699 

36,637 

1,768,112 

48.18 

63 

625 

19,842 

19,530 

277,930 

14.01 

14 

146 

36,576 

36,503 

1.731,475 

47.34 

64 

644 

19,217 

18,89s 

258,400 

13.45 

IS 

172 

36,430 

36,344 

1,694,972 

46.53 

65 

665 

i8,S73 

18,240 

239,505 

12.90 

16 

195 

36,258 

36,160 

1,658,628 

45.74 

66 

689 

17,908 

17,563 

221,265 

12.36 

17 

206 

36,063 

35,960 

1,622,468 

44.99 

67 

71S 

17,219 

16,861 

203,702 

11.83 

18 

218 

35.857 

35,748 

1,586,508 

44.24 

68 

743 

16,504 

16,132 

186,841 

11.32 

10 

230 

35,639 

35,524 

1,550,760 

43.51 

69 

771 

15.761 

15,375 

170,709 

10.83 

20 

241 

35.409 

35,288 

1,515,236 

42.79 

70 

793 

14,990 

14,593 

155,334 

10.36 

21 

251 

3S,i68 

35,042 

1,479,948 

42.08 

71 

809 

14,197 

13,792 

140,741 

9.91 

22 

255 

34,917 

34,790 

1,444,906 

41.38 

72 

821 

13,388 

12,977 

126,949 

948 

23 

261 

34.662 

34,531 

1,410,116 

40.68 

73 

825 

12,567 

12,154 

113,972 

9.07 

24 

26s 

34,401 

34,268 

1,375,585 

39-99 

74 

824 

11,742 

11,330 

101,818 

8.67 

25 

269 

34.136 

34,001 

1,341,317 

39-29 

75 

818 

10,918 

10,509 

90,488 

8.29 

26 

274 

33.867 

33,730 

1,307,316 

38.60 

76 

806 

10,100 

9,697 

79,979 

7-92 

27 

278 

33,593 

33,454 

1,273,586 

37.91 

77 

790 

9,294 

8,899 

70,282 

7-56 

28 

282 

33.315 

33,174 

1,240,132 

37.22 

78 

768 

8,504 

8,120 

61,383 

7.22 

29 

286 

33,033 

32,890 

1,206,958 

36.54 

79 

742 

7,736 

7,365 

53,263 

6.89 

30 

290 

32.747 

32,602 

1,174,068 

35-85 

80 

711 

6,994 

6,638 

45,898 

6.56 

31 

294 

32,457 

32,310 

1,141,466 

35.17 

81 

678 

6,283 

5.944 

39,260 

6.25 

32 

297 

32.163 

32,014 

1,109,156 

34-48 

82 

640 

5,605 

5,285 

33,316 

S-94 

33 

301 

31.866 

31,715 

1,077,142 

33-80 

83 

600 

4,965 

4,665 

28,031 

5.65 

34 

302 

31.565 

31,414 

1,045,427 

33-12 

84 

559 

4,365 

4,08s 

23,366 

5-35 

35 

306 

31.263 

31,110 

1,014,013 

32.43 

85 

518 

3,806 

3,547 

19,281 

5.07 

36 

308 

30,957 

30,803 

982,903 

31-75 

86 

476 

3,288 

3,050 

15,734 

4-69 

37 

312 

30,649 

30,493 

952,100 

31.06 

87 

434 

2,812 

2,595 

12,684 

4.51 

38 

31S 

30,337 

30,180 

921,607 

30.38 

88 

393 

2,378 

2,181 

10,089 

4-33 

39 

318 

30,022 

29,863 

891,427 

29.69 

89 

351 

1,98s 

1,810 

7,908 

3.98 

40 

320 

29,704 

29,544 

861,564 

29.00 

90 

310 

1,634 

1,479 

6,098 

3.73 

41 

324 

29,384 

29,222 

832,020 

27.62 

91 

270 

1,324 

1,189 

4,619 

3-49 

42 

326 

29,060 

28,897 

802,798 

27.62 

92 

232 

1,054 

938 

3,430 

3.49 

43 

329 

28,734 

28,570 

773,901 

26.93 

93 

194 

822 

725 

2,492 

3.03 

44 

332 

28,405 

28,239 

745,331 

26.24 

94 

160 

628 

548 

1,767 

2.81 

4S 

335 

28,073 

27,905 

717,092 

25.54 

95 

129 

468 

403 

1,219 

2.60 

46 

346 

27,738 

27,565 

689,187 

24-85 

96 

100 

339 

289 

816 

2.41 

47 

354 

27,392 

27,215 

661,622 

24.15 

97 

77 

239 

200 

527 

2.20 

48 

367 

27,038 

26,854 

634,407 

22.78 

98 

55 

162 

134 

327 

2.02 

49 

379 

26,671 

26,481 

607,553 

22.78 

99 

40 

107 

87 

193 

1.80 

100 

27 

67 

53 

106 

l.S8 

A  MASSACHUSETTS  LIFE  TABLE 


315 


Table  55 

Massachusetts  Life  Table.    Based  on  the  Mortality  of  the 
Five  Years,  1893-97 


m 

I- 

P 

X- 

Age 

m 

>• 

P 

z- 

Age 

Annual  Mortality 

Probability  of 

Annual  Mortality 

Probability  of 

per  unit  at  Each 

living  One  Year 

per  unit  at  Each 

living  One  Year 

Year  of  Age 

from  Each  Age 

X. 

Year  of  Age 

from  Each  Age 

X. 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

0 

■1909s 

.16287 

.82569 

.84939 

50 

.01708 

.01514 

■  98307 

.98498 

I 

•04313 

.04087 

■95778 

■95995 

51 

.01808 

.01596 

.98208 

.98417 

3 

.02030 

•01933 

.97990 

■98085 

52 

.01909 

.01674 

.98109 

.98340 

3 

.014H 

.01403 

.98599 

.98607 

S3 

.02023 

.01759 

.97997 

■98256 

4 

.01084 

.01004 

.98922 

.99001 

54 

.02140 

.01873 

.97888 

■98144 

S 

.00815 

.00835 

.99188 

.99168 

SS 

.02268 

.01989 

■97758 

.98031 

6 

.00655 

.00663 

■99347 

•  99339 

56 

.02416 

.02107 

■97613 

.97915 

7 

.00536 

.00550 

.99464 

■99452 

57 

■02583 

.02231 

■974SO 

97793 

8 

.00447 

■00456 

■99556 

.99546 

58 

■02757 

.02364 

.97280 

.97664 

g 

.00386 

.00396 

.99616 

.99606 

59 

.02968 

.02513 

■97075 

■97518 

10 

.00326 

.00349 

•9967s 

.99652 

60 

.03171 

.02683 

.96878 

•97353 

II 

.00292 

.00306 

.99709 

■99695 

61 

.03366 

.02835 

.96689 

■97205 

12 

.00277 

.00307 

.99722 

■99693 

62 

•03557 

.03008 

■96505 

•97037 

13 

.00297 

.00336 

.99703 

.99665 

63 

•03786 

.03200 

■96285 

•96850 

14 

.00362 

.00400 

.99640 

.99601 

64 

.04048 

.03408 

.96032 

.96648 

IS 

.00428 

•00473 

■99573 

■99528 

6s 

.04331 

.03646 

■95761 

.96419 

16 

.00489 

■00539 

■9951 1 

.99464 

66 

.04657 

•03923 

■95449 

■96152 

17 

.00530 

■00573 

.09471 

.99429 

67 

.05015 

.04241 

•95107 

.95848 

18 

.00577 

.00610 

■99425 

.99392 

68 

.05424 

.04606 

•94719 

■95498 

19 

.00621 

.00647 

■99381 

.99356 

69 

•05859 

.05015 

•94307 

■  95108 

20 

.00667 

.00683 

.99335 

.99320 

70 

.06324 

•05434 

•93869 

■94710 

21 

.00710 

.00716 

.99292 

.99286 

71 

.06793 

.05866 

•93430 

■94301 

22 

.00752 

.00733 

■99251 

.09268 

72 

■07306 

•06327 

■92951 

.93867 

23 

.00792 

.00756 

.99212 

.99249 

73 

■07833 

.06788 

.92462 

93435 

24 

.00824 

■00773 

•99179 

.99230 

74 

.08383 

.07273 

■91954 

.92983 

25 

.00851 

.00791 

•99153 

.99212 

75 

•08977 

.07784 

.91409 

.92508 

26 

.00873 

.00812 

•99131 

.99192 

76 

.09584 

.08312 

■90854 

.92020 

27 

.00892 

.00831 

.99112 

.99170 

77 

.10249 

.08877 

.90251 

.91500 

28 

.00912 

.00850 

.99092 

■99154 

78 

.10981 

.09458 

.89591 

.90969 

29 

.00933 

.00870 

.99072 

•99134 

79 

.11736 

.10075 

.88915 

.90408 

30 

.00950 

.00890 

.99054 

.99114 

80 

.12596 

.10711 

.88150 

.89834 

31 

.00966 

.00910 

.99039 

■99094 

81 

.13496 

.11406 

.87357 

.89209 

32 

.00978 

.00928 

.99026 

.99077 

82 

.14489 

.12110 

.86490 

.88581 

33 

.00988 

.00949 

.99017 

•9905s 

83 

.15582 

.12862 

.85544 

.87915 

34 

.OIOOI 

.00961 

.99004 

■99043 

84 

.16739 

.13684 

.84554 

.87192 

ZS 

.01017 

.00984 

.98988 

.99021 

85 

.18037 

.14604 

■83455 

.86390 

36 

.01037 

.01000 

.98968 

.99005 

86 

.19336 

.15607 

.82369 

.85523 

37 

.01058 

.01023 

.98948 

.98982 

87 

.20752 

.16724 

.81199 

.84567 

38 

.01069 

.01044 

.98927 

.98962 

88 

.22392 

.18019 

.79863 

.83470 

39 

.OIIOI 

.01063 

.98905 

.98942 

89 

.24217 

•19392 

•  78399 

.82322 

40 

.01123 

.01083 

.98881 

•98923 

90 

.26036 

.20960 

.76963 

.81028 

41 

.0x150 

.01109 

.98857 

.98897 

91 

.28106 

.22708 

•75357 

.79607 

42 

.01180 

.01128 

.98827 

.98878 

92 

.30353 

.24733 

•73647 

•  77989 

43 

.01215 

.01152 

.98792 

.98855 

93 

•33143 

.26759 

•  71569 

.76399 

44 

•01255 

.01176 

.98753 

.98831 

94 

•35484 

.29197 

.69863 

.74522 

45 

.01302 

.01200 

.98706 

.98802 

95 

•38596 

.32010 

.67647 

.72406 

46 

•OI3S9 

.01255 

.98650 

•98753 

96 

•42105 

.34602 

.65218 

.70502 

47 

.01430 

.01301 

.98581 

.98708 

97 

.45206 

.38500 

.63128 

.67715 

48 

•01513 

■01367 

.98498 

.98643 

98 

•Siiii 

.41045 

.59292 

.65944 

49 

.01608 

.01431 

.98404 

.98579 

99 

•57692 

•45977 

•55224 

.62617 

100 

.64286 

•S0943 

•51351 

•59399 

3i6 


STATE  SANITATION 


of  the  inhabitants  of  the  state,  or  such  portions  of  it  ?  We  con- 
sider this  question,  and  its  answer,  taken  in  their  broader  sense 
and  application,  as  the  most  important  practical  consideration 
connected  with  our  system  of  registration,  and  it  affords  extreme 
gratification  to  be  able  to  give  an  affirmative  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion. Aside  from  its  intrinsic  value,  it  is  creditable  to  the  state 
of  Massachusetts,  because  it  is  the  first  instance  where  such  data 
have  been  thus  furnished  and  thus  used  in  any  considerable  com- 
mimity  on  this  continent.  The  great  practical  results  in  the 
variety  of  their  applications  of  such  laborious  deductions  will 
furnish,  not  only  immediately,  but  for  years  to  come,  the  govern- 
ment and  intelHgent  statesmen,  as  well  as  others,  with  the  means  of 
determining  many  social  and  political  questions  of  high  practical 
value  hitherto  undeterminable." 

The  following  table  presents  the  mean  annual  death-rates  at 
each  of  thirteen  periods  or  groups  of  years,  beginning  with  birth, 
for  the  five  years  (1893-97).  To  these  are  added  as  a  matter  of 
convenience  the  death-rates  at  certain  other  groups  (1-4,0-9, 
etc.). 

Table  56 

Mean  Annual  Death-rates  at  Certain  Periods  or  Life 


Persons 

Males 

Females 

Age  Periods 

Persons 

Males 

Females 

Age  Periods 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

Death-rate 
at  Each 
Period 

0-4 

56.23 

60.12 

52.22 

45-54 

15-78 

16.67 

14.88 

S-9 

S-7S 

5-69 

S.82 

55-64 

28.18 

30.42 

26.00 

10-14 

3-25 

3-II 

340 

65-74 

55-34 

59-67 

51-37 

15-19 

5-48 

5-29 

5.68 

75-84 

107.22 

116.20 

99.88 

20-24 

7.40 

7.48 

7-32 

85-94 

199.71 

223.50 

184.81 

25-34 

9.06 

9-33 

8.78 

95  + 

384-43 

429.20 

367-07 

35-44 

10.97 

II. 19 

10.74 

Additional  Groups  or  Periods 


1-4 

21.86 

22.38 

21-33 

1-19 

8.61 

8.62 

8.60 

0-9 

31-93 

33-97 

29-83 

20-59 

12.24 

12.73 

11.74 

1-9 

13.10 

13-31 

12.89 

60  and  over 

66.29 

69.50 

63.42 

0-14 

22.73 

24.09 

21-35 

xxrx 

REPORT  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH  UPON 

THE  GENERAL  SUBJECT  OF  THE  DISCHARGE  OF 

SEWAGE  INTO  BOSTON  HARBOR 

[This  report  relates  to  the  establishment  of  the  South  Metiopolitan  Sewage 
System.    Special  Report,  1900,  p.  5.  —  G.  C.  W.J 

By  chapter  65  of  the  Resolves  of  the  General  Court  of  Massa- 
chusetts of  1899,  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  directed  to  consider 
the  general  subject  of  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  Boston  harbor 
and  the  disposal  of  sewage  for  the  MetropoHtan  districts  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  to  report  a  plan  for  an  outlet  for  a  high-level, 
gravity  or  other  sewer  for  the  reHef  of  the  Charles  and  Neponset 
River  valleys. 

Sewage  is  now  discharged  into  Boston  harbor  at  two  points, 
one  being  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  outlet  of  the  harbor  near 
Deer  Island  Beacon  and  the  other  in  a  more  central  position 
nearer  the  main  land  on  the  north  side  of  Moon  Island. 

At  the  outlet  near  Deer  Island  Beacon,  which  is  four  and  two- 
thirds  miles  from  Long  Wharf  in  Boston,  and  in  the  northerly 
edge  of  the  main  ship  channel,  sewage  from  the  North  Metro- 
politan district  is  allowed  to  discharge  as  it  comes  at  all  stages  of 
the  tide.  The  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  in  twenty-four  hours 
now  reaches  about  50,000,000  gallons;  and  this  quantity,  while 
distinctly  visible  along  the  northerly  edge  of  the  channel  for  a  half 
mile  toward  the  city  on  the  incoming  tide  and  toward  the  sea  on 
the  outgoing  tide,  gradually  becomes  less  distinct  at  greater 
distances  from  the  outlet,  and  disappears  entirely  within  a 
distance  of  one  and  a  quarter  miles. 

With  the  increase  of  population  in  the  North  Metropolitan  dis- 
trict the  amount  of  sewage  discharged  will  increase  and  will  spread 
over  a  somewhat  larger  area;   but  the  Board  sees  no  reason  to 


3i8  STATE  SANITATION 

anticipate  any  trouble  from  this  for  many  years  in  the  future  upon 
any  inhabitable  shores,  and  believes  that  the  only  objection  that 
can  be  raised  to  the  continual  discharge  of  sewage  here  will  be  by 
those  sailing  through  or  near  to  the  stream  of  sewage  within  a 
mile  of  the  outlet. 

At  Moon  Island  is  now  discharged  sewage  from  the  main  drain- 
age works  of  Boston,  including  that  from  the  lower  valley  of 
Charles  River  and  from  a  part  of  Neponset  River  valley,  amount- 
ing to  a  maximum  of  about  100,000,000  gallons  a  day. 

This  outlet  is  about  one  and  three-quarters  miles  farther  west 
than  the  outlet  at  Deer  Island  Beacon,  and  much  nearer  the  main 
land,  and  so  situated  that  if  sewage  were  allowed  to  discharge 
upon  the  incoming  tide  it  would  be  brought  to  habitable  shores 
and  become  a  nuisance ;  for  this  reason  the  sewage  is  conveyed  to 
reservoirs  on  Moon  Island  during  the  incoming  tide  and  dis- 
charged only  during  certain  hours  of  outgoing  tide,  when  the 
currents  are  most  favorable  for  conveying  the  sewage-laden 
water  toward  the  sea  through  channels  which  render  its  passage 
the  least  objectionable. 

By  storing  sewage  in  reservoirs,  even  for  the  hours  between 
tides,  it  becomes  more  offensive;  and  the  large  amount  which 
must  be  discharged  in  the  short  time  of  favorable  outgoing  cur- 
rents renders  the  locality  of  the  outlet  and  the  surrounding  area  of 
a  half  mile  radius  much  more  objectionable  than  the  steady  dis- 
charge of  fresh  sewage  at  Deer  Island  Beacon.  These  conditions 
Umit  the  amount  of  sewage  that  may  be  concentrated  at  this 
point  without  creating  a  nuisance. 

The  tunnel  connecting  Old  Harbor  Point  and  S  quantum  in  the 
line  of  the  Boston  main  drainage  system  has  a  maximum  capacity 
for  conveying  about  150,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  day;  and 
this  is  about  the  amount  of  sewage  that  may  be  expected  forty 
years  hence  from  the  low-level  area  of  Boston  for  which  these 
works  were  designed.  This  amount  will  be  about  50  per  cent 
more  than  the  present  maximum  discharge,  and  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Board  this  should  be  regarded  as  about  the  maximum  amoimt 
that  can  be  concentrated  at  Moon  Island  outlet  without  giving 
unreasonable  offence. 


SOUTH  METROPOLITAN  SEWAGE  SYSTEM        319 

We  think  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commissioners  have  done 
well  in  seeking  another  outlet  for  the  South  Metropolitan  system, 
with  the  view  of  ultimately  removing  from  the  Moon  Island  out- 
let all  of  the  areas  now  drained  which  were  not  contemplated  in 
the  original  design  for  the  low-lying  area  of  Boston.  With  the 
limitation  above  indicated,  we  regard  the  outlet  at  Moon  Island 
a  suitable  point  of  discharge  for  the  sewage  of  the  low-lying 
portion  of  Boston. 

From  a  careful  study  of  the  channels  and  currents  of  the  harbor 
and  of  the  whole  area  which  may  in  future  be  included  in  the 
South  Metropolitan  system,  we  conclude  that  the  Metropolitan 
Sewerage  Commissioners,  in  their  report  upon  a  high-level 
gravity  sewer  of  February  11,  1899,  have  designated  the  channel 
in  the  harbor  best  suited  to  receive  the  sewage  of  the  South 
Metropolitan  system,  viz.,  the  channel  along  the  northwesterly 
side  of  Peddock's  Island;  but  after  an  extended  study  of  the 
locality  we  would  advise  moving  the  outlets  they  propose  about 
2,000  feet  further  north,  so  that  both  will  be  one  mile  from  Nut 
Island,  one  directly  north  from  the  middle  thereof  and  the  other 
1,500  feet  more  easterly,  as  indicated  upon  the  plan.  Here  the 
sewage  will  be  discharged  about  30  feet  below  the  surface  at  low 
tide  into  a  strong  and  deep  current,  by  which  it  will  be  kept  well 
away  from  inhabited  shores  until  it  disappears  by  commingling 
with  enormous  quantities  of  ever-changing  salt  water. 

The  paths  that  will  be  taken  by  the  sewage  discharged  at 
these  points  with  their  limitations  upon  varying  conditions  of 
wind  and  tide  are  shown  upon  the  maps  of  the  report  of  the 
chief  engineer  of  the  Board;  and,  from  a  study  of  the  actual  con- 
ditions existing  at  the  present  outlets,  we  conclude  that  the 
sewage  of  the  South  Metropolitan  system  can  be  discharged  at 
these  points  continuously  without  offence  except  to  those  who 
are  saihng  in  the  stream  of  mingled  sewage  and  water,  or  near  its 
leeward  side  within  a  mile  of  the  outlets,  and  that  they  are  the 
most  suitable  points  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  of  the  South 
Metropolitan  system. 

The  plan  of  outlet  designated  on  pages  77  and  78  of  the  report 
of  the  Metropohtan  Sewerage  Commissioners  of  February  11, 


320  STATE  SANITATION 

1899,  to  the  General  Court,  with  the  change  of  position  herein 
presented,  is  recommended  for  adoption  by  this  Board. 

In  considering  the  general  subject  of  the  disposal  of  sewage  for 
the  Metropolitan  districts  of  the  Commonwealth,  as  required  by 
the  resolve,  question  has  arisen  as  to  what  areas  were  intended  to 
be  included  in  this  study. 

There  are  areas  north  and  northeast  from  the  North  Metro- 
politan sewerage  system  which  are  nearer  to  Boston  than  some  of 
the  areas  which  have  been  considered;  but,  as  the  question  of  dis- 
charge of  sewage  into  Boston  harbor  from  these  territories  is  not 
likely  to  arise,  except  for  some  small  areas  which  may  become 
adjuncts  to  the  North  Metropolitan  system,  for  which  provision 
is  made  under  existing  laws,  no  consideration  is  given  to  these 
areas  in  this  report ;  but  examination  has  been  made  of  all  terri- 
tory in  regard  to  which  may  arise  question  as  to  whether  its 
sewage  had  better  be  discharged  into  Boston  harbor. 

After  a  very  complete  study  of  all  of  the  towns  of  the 
upper  Charles  and  Neponset  River  valleys,  a  brief  statement 
of  which  is  given  in  the  report  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
Board,  it  was  found  that,  with  few  exceptions,  to  be  mentioned, 
it  will  be  more  economical  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  of  these 
towns  (which  are  not  designated  by  law  as  belonging  to  one  of  the 
Metropolitan  districts)  by  filtration  upon  land  in  each  town,  or  by 
a  combination  of  two  or  more  towns,  than  by  conveying  it  to 
Boston  harbor. 

The  exceptions  are  areas  of  small  extent  in  the  towns  of  Welles- 
ley,  Needham  and  Weston,  lying  near  to  Charles  River,  the  sew- 
age from  which  can  be  conveyed  across  the  river  and  into  the 
Newton  main  sewer  and  thence  to  the  Charles  River  valley  sewer 
of  the  Metropolitan  system. 

These  are  the  only  additions  that  it  may  be  well  to  make  in  this 
direction  to  the  South  Metropolitan  system. 

South  from  Quincy  and  east  from  Canton  are  the  towns  of  Ran- 
dolph, Holbrook,  Braintree,  Weymouth  and  Hingham,  whose 
natural  drainage  is  into  Boston  harbor.  Randolph  and  Holbrook, 
when  they  need  to  dispose  of  sewage,  can  do  so  economically  upon 
land  within  their  respective  territories;    but  Braintree,  Wey- 


SOUTH  METROPOLITAN  SEWAGE  SYSTEM        321 

mouth  and  Hingham  can  best  discharge  their  sewage  into  the  sea 
through  the  outlets  of  the  high-level  sewer.  Plans  by  which  this 
may  be  accompHshed  are  presented  in  the  report  of  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  Board. 

The  change  of  the  outlet  herein  recommended  does  not  require 
the  presentation  of  a  bill  for  action  by  the  General  Court,  because 
chapter  424  of  the  Acts  of  1899,  section  one,  provides  that  no  part 
of  said  proposed  outlet  shall  be  constructed  until  plans  of  said  out- 
let shall  be  further  considered  by  the  MetropoHtan  Sewerage 
Commissioners  and  adopted  and  approved  by  the  State  Board  of 
Health. 

It  is  further  provided,  by  section  two  of  the  same  act,  after 
describing  the  limits  of  the  South  Metropolitan  system,  that 
"  nothing  herein  shall  be  construed  to  vest  any  rights  which  can- 
not be  extended  to  cities  and  towns  or  parts  thereof  other  than 
those  herein  named,  upon  such  terms  and  conditions  as  may 
hereafter  be  imposed  by  legislative  enactment,"  and,  as  the 
sections  of  the  towns  of  Wellesley,  Needham  and  Weston  and  the 
towns  of  Braintree,  Weymouth  and  Hingham  which  are  not  now 
included  in  the  South  MetropoHtan  system  can  under  this  section 
be  admitted  into  the  system  when  they  may  in  the  future  need  to 
dispose  of  their  sewage,  and  they  can  then  be  allowed  to  enter 
without  modification  of  the  works  already  planned,  it  does  not 
appear  necessary  or  expedient  to  prepare  a  bill  at  this  time  under 
which  they  may  then  enter. 

Henry  P.  Walcott, 
Hiram  F.  Mills, 
Frank  W.  Draper, 
Gerard  C.  Tobey, 
Jas.  W.  Hull, 
Chas.  H.  Porter, 
Julian  A.  Mead, 

State  Board  of  Health. 


XXX 

EXAMINATION  OF  SEWER  OUTLETS  IN  BOSTON  HARBOR 

AND  OF  TIDAL  WATERS  AND  FLATS  FROM  WHICH 

SHELLFISH  ARE  TAKEN  FOR  FOOD 

By  X.  H.  GooDNOUGH 

{Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1905,  p.  411.  — G.  C.  W.] 

The  work  done  upon  the  examination  of  sewer  outlets  and  the 
investigation  of  the  condition  of  shellfish  in  the  fiats  and  waters  of 
the  Commonwealth  during  the  year  1905  has  been  confined  to 
Boston  harbor.  The  effect  of  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  each 
of  the  principal  sewer  outlets  into  the  harbor  has  been  examined 
and  numerous  chemical  and  bacterial  analyses  have  been  made  of 
water  both  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  sewer  outlets  and  from 
other  parts  of  the  harbor.  The  shores  of  the  harbor  and  of  the 
island  therein  and  the  flats  exposed  at  low  water  have  also  been 
carefully  inspected,  and  numerous  samples  of  shellfish  (clams) 
have  been  collected  and  analyzed.  The  results  of  the  investiga- 
tion are  presented  in  the  following  report. 

The  examinations  of  the  sewer  outlets  and  the  general  condition 
of  the  harbor  have  been  made  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Laurence 
Bradford,  who  has  had  many  years'  experience  in  this  work.  The 
samples  of  shellfish  and  of  the  harbor  waters  generally  were 
collected  by  Mr.  Henry  E.  Mead. 

The  principal  sewer  outlet  in  Boston  harbor  is  at  Moon  Island, 
where  the  sewage  of  the  Boston  main  drainage  works  has  been  dis- 
charged since  1884.  At  the  present  time  about  100,000,000  gal- 
lons of  sewage  are  ordinarily  discharged  daily  at  this  outlet.  The 
sewage  is  discharged  only  during  the  second  and  third  hours  of 
the  outgoing  tide,  and  reservoirs  have  been  provided  on  Moon 
Island  to  store  the  flow  of  sewage  at  other  times.  At  the  present 
time,  consequently,  about  50,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  are  dis- 
charged into  the  harbor  at  Moon  Island  on  each  tide,  the  dis- 

332 


SEWER  OUTLETS  AND  TIDAL  WATERS  323 

charge  lasting  about  two  hours,  so  that  the  rate  of  discharge  is 
approximately  25,000,000  gallons  per  hour. 

The  sewage  from  the  city  sewers  on  its  way  to  Moon  Island 
passes  first  through  large  deposit  sewers  or  tanks  for  the  removal 
of  heavier  matters,  then  through  a  tunnel  about  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  in  length  under  Dorchester  bay,  and  is  subsequently 
stored  in  the  reservoirs  for  a  period  of  several  hours,  and  in 
consequence  the  sewage  is  much  decomposed  when  it  reaches  the 
outlet. 

Observations  of  the  area  covered  by  the  discharge  of  sewage 
from  Moon  Island  show  that  the  sewage  passes  out  of  the  harbor 
chiefly  around  the  southerly  end  of  Long  Island,  between  Long 
and  Rainsf ord  Islands ;  but  a  portion  passes  north  of  Long  Island, 
at  least  at  times,  and  a  portion  also  south  of  Rainsford  Island. 
The  outlines  of  the  area  affected  by  sewage  are  quite  well  defined 
on  calm  days  by  the  greasy  film  or  sleek  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

The  next  main  sewer  outlet  of  importance  is  that  at  Deer 
Island,  where  the  sewage  of  the  North  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
District  has  been  discharged  continuously  into  the  harbor  at  all 
stages  of  the  tide  since  1895.  There  are  no  reservoirs  or  deposit 
sewers  along  the  line  of  the  main  sewer  leading  to  this  outlet,  and 
the  sewage  is  considerably  fresher  than  that  discharged  at  Moon 
Island.  The  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  at  Deer  Island  at  the 
present  time  amounts  to  about  half  that  discharged  at  Moon 
Island,  or  about  50,000,000  gallons  per  day;  and,  as  the  dis- 
charge is  continuous,  the  rate  of  discharge  is  consequently 
approximately  2,000,000  gallons  per  hour,  or  a  little  less  than  one- 
twelfth  the  rate  of  discharge  at  Moon  Island  when  the  reservoirs 
are  emptied  there.  The  outlet  is  located  at  the  end  of  a  long  sand 
bar  exposed  only  at  low  water.  On  the  outgoing  tide  the  sewage 
at  Deer  Island  flows  rapidly  to  sea  in  a  narrow  field,  and  is  rarely 
traceable  at  any  considerable  distance  from  the  outlet  except  in 
calm  weather,  when  it  can  be  noted  in  the  water  for  perhaps  a 
mile  under  favorable  conditions.  As  the  tide  turns,  the  flow  of 
sewage  turns  southerly  and  then  westerly,  and  after  the  water  has 
risen  over  the  bar  the  flow  is  established  generally  in  a  narrow 


324  STATE  SANITATION 

field  in  the  direction  of  Apple  Island;  and  toward  high  water  the 
sleek  can  be  noticed  for  a  mile  from  the  outlet  on  calm  days,  lying 
between  the  main  ship  channel  and  Deer  Island.  On  the  turn  of 
the  tide  the  sewage  quickly  passes  to  sea,  and  evidences  of  it  dis- 
appear from  this  area. 

A  third  main  sewer  outlet,  known  as  the  Peddock's  Island  out- 
let, was  completed  last  year,  and  is  the  place  of  disposal  of  the 
sewage  of  the  South  Metropolitan  District.  At  this  outlet  the 
sewage  is  at  present  discharged  alternately  at  two  points,  one 
located  about  i  mile  due  north  of  Nut  Island,  and  the  other  1,500 
feet  farther  east,  both  outlets  being  a  short  distance  northwest  of 
the  southerly  end  of  Peddock's  Island.  At  Peddock's  Island,  as 
at  Deer  Island,  the  sewage  is  discharged  continuously  without 
storage  at  any  point;  and  during  the  past  year  about  20,000,000 
gallons  of  sewage  per  day  have  been  discharged  at  all  stages  of 
the  tide,  the  rate  of  flow  here  being  a  little  over  800,000  gallons 
per  hour,  or  about  two-fifths  the  rate  at  which  sewage  is  dis- 
charged at  Deer  Island.  The  observations  during  the  past  year 
show  that  the  presence  of  the  sewage  in  the  water  can  ordinarily 
be  detected  only  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  outlet. 

In  addition  to  the  sewage  discharged  at  these  main  outlets,  a 
large  quantity  of  sewage  overflows  at  times  of  rain  from  the  com- 
bined sewer  systems  in  Boston,  Cambridge,  Somerville  and 
Chelsea,  and  large  quantities  of  sewage  are  discharged  at  such 
times  into  the  Charles  and  Mystic  rivers  and  into  the  upper 
harbor,  and  a  small  quantity  into  the  estuary  of  the  Neponset 
River.  In  addition  to  this  sewage,  a  considerable  quantity  of 
sewage  is  discharged  directly  into  the  harbor  or  its  tributaries 
from  a  few  sewers  not  connected  with  the  metropolitan  systems, 
chiefly  in  Chelsea.  These  sewers  are  described  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  for  the  year  1902,  pages  294, 
295  and  309.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  sewage  of  the  city  of 
Chelsea  (population  in  1905,  37,289)  is  discharged  into  the  tidal 
waters  about  that  city,  at  the  head  of  Boston  harbor,  and  causes 
very  serious  local  nuisances,  besides  polluting  the  harbor.  Con- 
nections have  already  been  made  by  which  the  sewage  from  the 
principal  sewers  in  this  district  could  be  discharged  into  the  metro- 


SEWER  OUTLETS  AND  TIDAL  WATERS  325 

politan  sewerage  system;  but  these  connections  have  been  shut 
off,  on  account,  apparently,  of  the  neglect  of  the  Chelsea  authori- 
ties to  maintain  their  sewers  in  proper  condition.  Besides  the 
sewage  from  these  outlets  and  from  the  storm  overflows  of  com- 
bined systems,  the  harbor  receives  also  a  considerable  quantity 
of  direct  pollution  by  sewage  from  buildings  and  wharves  along 
its  shores  and  from  vessels,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sewage  is  also 
discharged  into  the  harbor  from  public  institutions  on  the  islands. 
The  fiats  about  Spectacle  Island,  on  which  a  garbage  disposal 
plant  and  a  rendering  establishment  are  located,  are  very  foul. 

Visible  Effects  of  the  Discharge  of  Sewage  into 
Boston  Harbor 

The  sewage  from  the  Moon  Island  outlet  greatly  discolors  the 
water  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  from  the  outlet;  but 
it  is  very  difficult  to  trace  it  under  favorable  conditions  for  more 
than  two  miles,  even  by  careful  inspection. 

The  sewer  outlet  at  Moon  Island  is  located  at  the  northwesterly 
corner  of  the  island,  and  the  sewage  is  discharged  at  the  level  of 
the  water.  A  sea  wall  extends  for  about  i  ,500  feet  southwest  from 
the  outlet,  and  when  the  sewage  is  discharged  it  eddies  against 
this  wall  throughout  its  length,  and  deposits  of  organic  matter 
take  place  in  the  shallow  water  here  during  the  summer  season. 
These  deposits  are  usually  removed  by  the  heavy  easterly  storms 
of  the  fall  and  winter,  but  they  reappear  again  in  the  summer; 
and  the  existence  of  these  deposits,  combined  with  the  effect  of 
the  eddy,  is  probably  responsible  in  part  for  the  constant  presence 
of  a  slight  excess  of  organic  matter  in  the  waters  in  this  region 
above  those  of  other  parts  of  the  harbor.  On  the  incoming  tide 
the  polluted  water  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  wall  passes  up  along 
the  south  shore  of  Moon  Island  toward  Quincy  bay.  Under 
some  conditions  in  summer,  especially  on  the  incoming  tide,  a 
small  quantity  of  sewage  is  said  to  work  up  along  the  northerly 
side  of  the  island  and  deposits  form  at  times  near  the  shore  on  the 
northerly  side  of  the  outlet.  These  deposits  do  not  appear  to  be 
permanent,  and  are  removed  by  the  waves  and  currents  from 
time  to  time.    With  the  exception  of  the  deposits  noted  in  the 


326  STATE  SANITATION 

neighborhood  of  the  wall,  no  other  noticeable  deposits  appear  to 
take  place  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  outlet. 

Sewage  from  the  Deer  Island  outlet  discolors  the  water  for  a 
distance  of  about  half  a  mile  from  the  outlet  under  favorable 
conditions,  and  is  traceable  for  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
under  such  conditions;  but  at  these  distances  the  indications  of 
sewage  are  so  slight  that  they  are  difficult  to  trace,  and  can  only 
be  detected  in  places.  The  sewage  from  the  Peddock's  Island 
outlet  can  be  traced  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  less 
than  a  mile  from  the  outlet. 

The  odor  from  the  Moon  Island  outlet  is  offensive  for  a  distance 
of  about  half  a  mile  from  the  outlet,  and  is  noticeable  at  times  at 
greater  distances.  At  Deer  Island  an  odor  is  rarely  noticeable  for 
a  distance  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  while  at  Peddock's 
Island  an  odor  is  observable  under  present  conditions  only 
immediately  about  the  outlet. 

Chemical  Examination  of  the  Harbor  Water  about  the 
Moon  Island  and  Deer  Island  Sewer  Outlets 

In  order  to  determine  more  definitely  the  area  in  the  harbor 
materially  affected  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  at  the  Moon 
Island  and  Deer  Island  sewer  outlets,  samples  of  sea  water  were 
collected  for  chemical  analysis  at  24  stations  in  the  vicinity  of 
Moon  Island  and  at  14  stations  near  Deer  Island  in  August  and 
September,  and  the  results  are  presented  in  tables  and  a  map  ap- 
pended hereto.^  All  of  the  samples  were  collected  at  the  surface  of 
the  water,  which  at  times  was  affected  considerably  by  the  wind. 

The  first  series  at  Moon  Island  was  collected  just  before  the 
discharge  of  sewage  from  the  reservoirs,  and  consequently  about 
ten  hours  after  the  previous  discharge  had  ceased.  The  results 
show  that  the  free  ammonia  at  the  stations,  within  the  area  which 
have  usually,  by  observation,  appeared  to  be  affected  by  the 
sewage  from  this  outlet,  was  considerably  higher  than  at  the 
stations  outside,  although  at  the  times  these  samples  were  col- 
lected there  were  no  visible  evidences  of  sewage  in  the  water 
except  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  outlet  and  along  the  sea  wall. 
^  These  are  not  reproduced  here. 


SEWER  OUTLETS  AND  TIDAL  WATERS  327 

It  should  be  stated  here  that  in  all  cases  a  persistently  high  free 
ammonia  was  found  in  a  station  close  to  Spectacle  Island,  the 
presence  of  which  is  apparently  due  to  local  pollution  from  the 
garbage  disposal  plant  and  rendering  works  on  this  island. 

A  second  series  of  samples,  collected  between  four  and  five  hours 
after  high  tide,  and  consequently  from  one  to  two  hours  after  the 
discharge  of  sewage  had  ceased,  gave  results  similar  to  those  just 
described,  in  that  approximately  the  same  area  was  affected 
which  was  found  to  be  affected  before  the  discharge  had  taken 
place;  but  in  the  latter  series  of  samples  both  the  free  and  albumi- 
noid ammonia  were  decidedly  higher  at  practically  all  of  the 
stations  affected  than  at  the  previous  time. 

A  third  series  of  samples,  collected  from  one  to  two  hours  after 
low  water,  and  consequently  from  four  to  five  hours  after  the  last 
discharge  of  sewage  had  ceased,  shows  a  similar  result.  A  slight 
e£fect  of  the  sewage  can  be  detected  from  these  analyses  on  both 
sides  of  Moon  Island  and  along  both  sides  of  Long  Island  to  the 
edge  of  the  main  ship  channel.  It  is  also  noticeable  in  the 
area  around  Rainsford,  Gallup's  and  George's  Islands.  An  area 
having  a  slightly  greater  amount  of  free  ammonia  is  also  notice- 
able about  Hangman's  Island  in  Quincy  bay.  This  may  be  due 
to  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  Peddock's  Island  sewer,  which 
may  go  in  this  direction  for  a  short  time  after  low  water. 

A  fourth  series  of  samples,  collected  from  three  to  four  hours 
after  low  water,  or  from  six  to  seven  hours  after  the  previous 
discharge  of  sewage  had  ceased,  showed  approximately  the 
same  results  as  were  shown  by  the  first  series  of  samples 
already  described. 

The  results  of  this  examination  show  that  the  sea  water  in  the 
area  over  which  sewage  flows  twice  daily  from  the  outlet  at  Moon 
Island  contained  constantly  at  this  time  a  sHghtly  greater  quan- 
tity of  organic  matter  than  is  found  in  the  adjacent  harbor  waters 
not  reached  by  the  sewage  from  this  outlet. 

In  the  area  toward  which  sewage  flows  on  the  incoming  tide 
from  the  Deer  Island  outlet,  in  the  portion  of  the  harbor  north  of 
a  line  drawn  from  Deer  Island  Light  to  Fort  Independence,  four 
samples  of  water  were  collected  at  regular  intervals  at  14  stations, 


328 


STATE  SANITATION 


one  sample  being  collected  about  two  hours  after  low  tide,  a 
second  about  five  hours  after  low  tide,  a  third  about  two  hours 
after  high  tide  and  a  fourth  about  five  hours  after  high  tide.  The 
samples  collected  two  hours  and  five  hours,  respectively,  after 
low  tide,  represent  the  conditions  existing  when  sewage  from  the 
Deer  Island  outlet  is  flowing  toward  the  section  of  the  harbor 
examined.  The  samples  collected  about  two  hours  and  five 
hours,  respectively,  after  high  tide,  represent  the  condition  of  the 
water  in  this  area  when  the  sewage  from  Deer  Island  is  flowing 
out  to  sea. 

An  examination  of  the  results  of  the  analyses  shows,  in  general, 
that  the  quantity  of  free  ammonia  in  the  water  of  this  area  was 
greater  about  two  hours  after  low  tide  than  at  any  other  time, 
while  the  least  quantity  was  found  in  the  samples  collected  five 
hours  after  low  water.  The  differences  in  the  quantities  of  free 
ammonia  present  in  the  water  in  different  parts  of  the  area  were 
not  large.  The  greatest  quantities  were  present  in  the  samples 
collected  two  hours  after  low  water  along  the  southerly  edge  of 
the  area,  i.  e.,  along  a  Hne  drawn  from  the  sewer  outlet  toward 
the  southerly  end  of  Governor's  Island.  North  of  this  line  the 
quantities  were  less,  as  the  following  table  shows :  — 

Table  57 

Table  showing  Quantities  of  Free  and  Albuminoid  Ammonia  in  Waters  of 
Boston  Harbor  North  of  the  Main  Ship  Channel.  (1905.) 

[Averages  of  results  at  stations  in  lines  parallel  with  the  ship  channel.] 


Two  Hours  after 
Low  Water 

Five  Hours  after 
Low  Water 

Two  Hours  after 
High  Water 

Five  Hours  after 
High  Water 

Stations 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

4,  5,  14 

3,  6,  13 

2,  7,8,9.... 

.0177 
.0130 
.0136 

.0118 
.0105 
.0109 

.0043 
.0072 
.0072 

.0103 
.0098 
.0102 

.0095 
.0102 
.0092 

•0093 
.0100 
.0100 

.0128 
.0107 
.0115 

.0107 
.0095 
.0100 

Average  .  . 

.0148 

.0111 

.0062 

.0101 

.0096 

.0098 

.0117 

.0101 

Grouping  those  stations  at  approximately  equal  distances  from 
the  outlet,  it  appears  that  at  two  hours  after  low  water  the 


SEWER  OUTLETS  AND  TIDAL  WATERS 


329 


quantity  of  free  ammonia  in  the  water  was  less  at  stations  10,  11, 
and  12,  farthest  from  the  outlet,  than  at  the  stations  nearer  the 
outlet ;  while  at  five  hours  after  low  water  the  opposite  was  true, 
i.  e.,  the  quantity  of  free  ammonia  was  highest  at  stations  10,  11, 
and  12,  farthest  from  the  outlet.  The  quantity  of  free  ammonia 
present  in  the  water  two  hours  after  high  tide  was  also  greatest 
at  the  stations  farthest  from  the  outlet,  —  a  condition  which  is 
probably  due  in  part  at  least  to  pollution  coming  down  the  harbor 
from  points  above.  The  results  of  these  groupings  are  shown  by 
the  following  table :  — 

Table  58 

Table  showing  Quantities  of  Free  and  Albuminoid  Ammonia  in  Waters  of 
Boston  Harbor  North  of  the  Main  Ship  Channel.     (1905.) 

[Averages  of  results  at  stations  at  approximately  equal  distances  from  the  Deer  Island  sewer  outlet.] 


Two  Hours  after 
Low  Water 

Five  Hours  after 
Low  Water 

Two  Hours  after 
High  Water 

Five  Hours  after 
High  Water 

Stations 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

Free 

Albu- 
minoid 

2,3,4 

5,6,7 

8,  9,  13,  14.  . 
10,  II,  12.. .  . 

.0140 
.0150 
.0149 
.0128 

.0102 
.0120 
.0110 
.0113 

.0073 
.0045 
.0070 
.0122 

.0107 
.0097 
.0101 
.0092 

.0073 
.0102 
.0109 
.0112 

■009s 
.0100 
.0099 
.0097 

.0080 
.0102 

•OISS 
.0122 

.0095 
.0098 
.0106 
.0097 

Average . .  . 

.0132 

.0111 

.0077 

.0099 

.0099 

.0098 

.0115 

.0099 

Chemical  and  Bacterial  Analyses  of  the  Water 
IN  Different  Parts  of  Boston  Harbor 

In  the  latter  part  of  September  an  examination  was  made  to 
learn  the  general  condition  of  the  water  in  all  parts  of  Boston 
harbor.  For  this  purpose  60  stations  were  selected,  distributed 
as  evenly  as  practicable  in  all  parts  of  the  harbor,  but  includ- 
ing a  few  stations  outside  its  entrance,  and  at  each  of  these 
stations  samples  of  water  were  collected  both  on  the  incoming 
and  outgoing  tide  for  chemical  and  bacterial  analysis.  The 
work  covered  a  period  of  about  five  days,  between  September 
14  and  29. 


330  STATE  SANITATION 

During  the  period  covered  by  the  harbor  examinations  in 
September,  1905,  there  was  no  considerable  rainfall,  and  the 
waters  of  the  upper  harbor  were  not  being  polluted  by  the  over- 
flow of  considerable  quantities  of  sewage  during  this  period,  as 
would  be  the  case  in  wet  weather. 

The  outermost  station  at  which  samples  of  water  were  collected 
was  at  Three  and  One-half  Fathom  Ledge,  six  miles  east  of  Deer 
Island  Light;  and  the  next  nearest  station  was  located  about  half 
a  mile  north  of  Outer  Brewster  Island,  four  miles  from  Deer 
Island  Light.  At  these  two  stations  samples  collected  on  the  out- 
going tide  showed  the  presence  of  27  and  24  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter  respectively,  and  no  coli.  A  sample  collected  on  the 
incoming  tide  in  the  main  channel  a  Uttle  over  a  mile  east  of 
Deer  Island  Light  showed  the  presence  of  22  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter,  and  no  coli.  A  sample  collected  on  the  incoming 
tide  in  the  Black  Rock  channel  showed  the  presence  of  a  larger 
number  of  bacteria  than  at  the  other  stations  just  referred  to, 
and  a  larger  number  was  also  found  in  a  sample  collected  be- 
tween Boston  Light  and  Point  AUerton,  but  no  coli  were  found 
in  either  of  these  samples.  All  of  these  stations  are  outside  the 
harbor. 

The  only  stations  within  the  harbor  from  which  samples  of 
water  free  from  coli  were  obtained,  either  upon  the  incoming  or 
outgoing  tide,  were  in  a  small  channel  between  Crow  Point  and 
Slate  Island,  Hingham,  where  a  sample  collected  on  the  incom- 
ing tide  was  found  to  contain  36  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter, 
and  no  coli,  and  at  the  bridge  at  Quincy  Point,  where  a  sample 
collected  on  the  incoming  tide  was  found  to  contain  65  bacteria, 
but  no  coli. 

The  greatest  numbers  of  bacteria  found  in  any  of  the  samples 
were  present  in  those  collected  over  the  sewer  outlet  at  Deer 
Island,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sewer  outlet  at  Moon  Island, 
in  the  estuary  of  the  Neponset  River,  and  in  the  main  ship 
chaimel  between  Boston  and  East  Boston.  The  effect  of  the  sewer 
outlet  near  Peddock's  Island  was  also  marked  by  the  presence  of 
a  much  larger  number  of  bacteria  at  a  station  near  this  outlet 
than  was  found  at  the  other  stations  in  this  neighborhood. 


SEWER  OUTLETS  AND  TIDAL  WATERS 


331 


Grouping  the  results  in  general  accordance  with  the  main 
divisions  of  the  harbor  waters,  we  find  that  the  smallest  average 
number  of  bacteria  found  in  samples  collected  within  the  harbor 
—  i.e.,  within  a  line  drawn  from  Deer  Island  Light  to  Point 
Allerton  —  was  in   those   collected  in   Hingham   bay.     In    15 

Table  59 

Chemical  and  Bacterial  Analyses  of  Water  from  Different  Parts 
OF  Boston  Harbor.     (1905.) 


Location 


Bacteria 

B.  CoU 

Free 
Ammonia 

Albuminoid 
Ammonia 

Incom- 

Out- 

Incom- 

Out- 

Incom- 

Out- 

Incom- 

Out- 

ing 
Tide 

going 
Tide 

ing 
Tide 

gomg 
Tide 

ing 
Tide 

going 
Tide 

ing 
Tide 

gomg 
Tide 

1,043 » 

1,098 

28 

30 

■02  S3 

.0340 

.0131 

.0144 

526 

S87 

29 

12 

.0174 

.0205 

.0132 

.0110 

258 

197 

24 

14 

.0089 

.0126 

•0134 

.0116 

330' 

251' 

33 

62 

.0161 

•019s 

.0143 

.0206 

327 

797 

143 

117 

.0103 

.0131 

.oiis 

.0136 

71 

86 

4 

I 

.0076 

.0073 

.0096 

.0108 

Numbers  of 
Stations  at 

which 

Samples  were 

collected ' 


Inner  harbor 

Middle  harbor 

North  side  of  main  ship 

channel 

Dorchester  bay 

Quincy  bay 

Hingham  bay 


9-lS 
4-8 

1-3,  18,  19 

20-30 

32-38,  43,  44 

46-60 


1  Station  numbers  refer  to  the  map. 


'  Omitting  station  ii. 


'  Omitting  stations  29  and  30. 


samples  collected  on  the  incoming  tide  in  this  bay  the  average 
number  of  bacteria  was  71,  and  in  13  samples  collected  on  the 
outgoing  tide  the  average  number  found  was  86. 

Next  to  Hingham  bay,  the  lowest  numbers  of  bacteria  found  in 
the  water  of  any  large  section  of  the  harbor  were  found  in  the 
region  north  of  the  main  ship  channel  between  East  Boston  and 
Deer  Island.  The  highest  numbers  were  found  in  the  samples 
collected  in  the  inner  harbor  and  the  next  highest  in  those  collected 
in  the  middle  harbor,  i.  e.,  in  the  region  around  Governor's 
Island. 

The  greatest  numbers  of  B.  coli  were  found  in  the  water  of 
Quincy  bay,  and  a  larger  number  was  found  in  Dorchester  bay 
than  in  any  other  section  of  the  harbor  except  Quincy  bay.  The 
reason  for  this  is  doubtless  the  fact  that  some  of  the  stations  in 
Quincy  and  Dorchester  bays  were  within  the  area  affected  by  the 
discharge  of  sewage  at  Moon  Island.  The  smallest  numbers  of 
coli  were  found  in  the  waters  of  Hingham  bay. 


332  STATE  SANITATION 

The  results  of  the  chemical  analyses  correspond  very  closely  to 
the  results  of  the  bacterial  analyses.  The  greatest  quantities  of 
free  ammonia  present  in  the  water  of  any  considerable  section  of 
the  harbor  were  found  in  the  waters  of  the  inner  harbor  and  the 
next  highest  in  the  waters  of  the  middle  harbor. 

The  results  show  that  the  worst  polluted  section  of  Boston 
harbor  at  the  present  time  is  the  portion  known  as  the  inner 
harbor,  extending  from  the  neighborhood  of  Governor's  Island 
and  City  Point  up  to  the  mouths  of  the  Charles  and  Mystic 
rivers. 


XXXI 

INSPECTION  OF  DAIRIES 

By  Dr.  Charles  W.  Harrington 

[In  recent  years  the  milk  situation  has  been  vigorously  discussed  in  Massa- 
chusetts and,  in  fact,  throughout  the  country.  Dr.  Harrington  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  in  this  agitation.  This  paper  is  a  good  summary  of  prevailing  ideas  in  1905. 
Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1905,  p.  519.  —  G.  C.  W.^ 

The  causal  relation  of  unclean  milk  to  infantile  death-rates  is 
one  of  the  established  facts  of  preventive  medicine;  and  experi- 
ence has  shown,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  that  improve- 
ment in  the  sanitary  conditions  of  milk  production,  handling, 
storage,  transportation  and  distribution  is  followed  by  such 
marked  diminution  in  the  loss  of  infant  Hfe  as  to  make  it  the 
imperative  duty  of  pubHc  health  authorities  to  give  to  this  much- 
neglected  subject  the  fullest  possible  attention.  Laws  against 
fraudulent  adulteration  of  milk  have  been  long  in  existence  in 
most  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  but  until  very  recently  the  more 
important  question  of  wholesomeness  has  been  confined  within 
the  limits  of  academic  discussion,  and  only  in  a  small  number  of 
cities  and  towns  have  regulations  been  made  by  local  authorities, 
having  no  power  of  supervision  beyond  the  Hmits  of  their  respec- 
tive communities.  In  no  state  in  the  Union  and  in  no  foreign 
country  has  the  central  authority  thus  far  enacted  and  enforced 
the  strict  legislation  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  public 
health  against  the  consequences  of  the  use  of  milk  contaminated 
by  the  exciting  causes  of  infective  diseases,  especially  of  cholera 
infantum,  at  the  place  of  production  and  during  storage,  trans- 
portation and  sale.  These  causes  are  in  part  inherent  in  the  cow 
(garget,  tuberculosis  of  the  udder,  etc.),  but  to  a  far  greater  extent 
they  gain  access  to  the  milk,  therein  to  multiply,  through  pre- 
ventable filth  and  dust.  The  production  of  clean,  wholesome 
milk  is  dependent  upon  the  maintenance  of  health  in  the  cow; 
upon  cleanHness  of  the  cow,  the  cow  stable,  the  milkers  and  the 
utensils  employed;   and  upon  the  methods  followed  in  cooKng, 


334  STATE  SANITATION 

handling,  storage,  transportation  and  distribution.  Clean  milk 
cannot  be  produced  from  diseased  cows  nor  from  cows  encrusted 
with  their  own  excrement,  which  in  the  process  of  milking  must, 
to  some  extent  at  least,  become  dislodged  as  fine  dust  or  in  large 
particles  and  fall  into  the  milking  pail;  and,  even  though  the 
larger  particles  and  hairs  be  removed  in  the  process  of  straining, 
the  harm  has  been  done.  It  cannot  be  produced,  even  from  clean 
cows,  if  the  milking  be  done  by  milkers  with  unclean  hands  and 
unclean  clothing,  from  which  the  infective  organisms  may  be 
communicated  to  the  contents  of  the  pail.  It  cannot  be  produced 
where  the  milking  pails,  cans  and  other  utensils  are  not  kept  in  a 
scrupulously  clean  condition,  and  protected  from  bacteria-laden 
dust  particles.  Even  under  the  most  perfect  sanitary  conditions 
complete  exclusion  of  the  various  fermentative  organisms  is  im- 
possible, but  their  almost  inconceivably  rapid  multiplication  can 
be  prevented  by  rapid  cooling  of  the  milk  and  maintenance  of  a 
low  temperature  thereafter,  since  warmth  is  the  one  most  im- 
portant favoring  condition  for  growth.  Therefore,  proper  and 
efficient  methods  and  means  of  cooling  and  storage  are  most 
essential. 

Since  milk  is  very  sensitive  to  odors,  which  it  very  readily 
absorbs  to  such  an  extent  as  to  affect  its  taste,  the  proximity  of 
pigs,  horses,  swill,  stored  manure  and  other  sources  of  foul  odors 
is  inconsistent  with  prime  quality. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  cow  having  a  direct  influence 
upon  the  quality  of  her  milk,  the  conditions  of  the  stable  as  to 
ventilation,  Ught  and  other  influences  affecting  health  should 
receive  a  generous  measure  of  attention. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  production  of  milk  fit  for 
human,  and  especially  infant,  consumption,  requires  proper 
housing  of  healthy  stock,  general  cleanliness  and  careful  handling. 

Recognizing  the  well-demonstrated  importance  of  an  improved 
milk  supply  in  its  relation  to  the  public  health,  the  Board,  acting 
under  its  general  authority,  began,  on  March  i,  1905,  a  systematic 
investigation  of  dairies  and  the  conditions  under  which  milk  is 
produced  for  public  sale.  As  stated  in  a  previous  report,  the 
examination   embraces  an  inquiry  into  the  health  and  condi- 


INSPECTION  OF  DAIRIES  335 

tion  of  cleanliness  of  the  cows,  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
stables,  the  water  supply,  the  methods  of  drawing,  cooling, 
handling  and  transportation,  and  other  matters  germane  to  the 
subject. 

A  separate  report  is  made  on  each  dairy  by  the  inspector  to  the 
secretary  of  the  Board,  who  determines  what  changes,  if  any,  in 
conditions  or  methods  are  desirable,  and  communicates  his  sug- 
gestions directly  or  indirectly  to  the  person  responsible  in  each 
instance.  The  investigation  demonstrated  from  the  start  its 
necessity,  for  a  condition  of  affairs  was  disclosed  which  is  not 
creditable  to  the  Commonwealth.  It  is  true  that  in  most  cases 
the  objectionable  conditions  reported  were  susceptible  of  im- 
provement without  the  expenditure  of  money,  and  without 
involving  anything  more  than  ordinary  care  in  the  matter  of 
common  cleanliness;  but  in  many  instances  the  conditions  which 
obtained  were  found  to  be  most  revolting  in  character. 

The  worst  existing  conditions  were  not,  as  might  be  supposed, 
found  always  in  the  poorer  country  districts,  but  often  within  the 
limits  of  cities.  One  of  the  worst  places  visited  was  situated 
within  five  miles  of  the  State  House,  and  presented  the  following 
conditions:  In  a  barn  with  9,000  cubic  feet  of  air  space,  with  no 
cellar,  and  inadequately  lighted,  were  found  3  horses  and  14 
filthy  cows,  the  latter  being  fed  on  brewers'  grains,  rotting  pota- 
toes and  a  little  grain.  The  store  of  potatoes  was  kept  in  an 
adjoining  yard,  which  could  not  be  crossed  except  by  walking 
through  mud  and  filth  nearly  6  inches  in  depth.  In  one  corner  of 
this  yard  was  an  equally  filthy  pen  containing  ducks.  The  liquid 
manure  and  other  drainage  of  the  barn  and  yard  were  conducted 
in  shallow  ditches  to  a  small  creek,  which  constituted  the  sole 
water  supply  of  the  place  for  watering  the  stock  and  washing  the 
milk  pails,  cans  and  glass  jars  used  in  delivery.  The  room  in 
which  the  milk  was  cooled  and  handled  was  thoroughly  in  keeping 
with  its  surroundings,  being  filthy  in  all  particulars,  and  exceed- 
ingly foul-smelling.  The  attention  of  the  local  boards  of  health 
of  the  cities  in  which  this  milk  was  being  sold  was  called  to  the 
impossibility  of  producing  clean  and  wholesome  milk  in  such 
surroundings. 


336  STATE  SANITATION 

Numerous  cases,  equally  bad  in  some  respects,  less  so  in  others, 
and  worse  in  still  others,  have  been  reported  in  various  parts  of 
the  area  covered  thus  far  by  the  inspector. 

Condition  of  Cows 

In  cases  where  it  was  possible  to  do  so,  the  cows  were  examined 
as  to  condition  of  health  and  as  to  condition  of  cleanliness,  but 
during  the  warmer  months,  when  the  cows  were  out,  this  part  of 
the  inspection  necessarily  could  not  be  pursued.  Of  the  cows 
examined  indoors,  but  46  were  found  to  be  tuberculous;  20  were 
afflicted  with  garget  to  such  an  extent  that  the  milk  contained 
large  amounts  of  pus;  and  10  had  retained  foetal  membranes, 
with  consequent  purulent  discharge  which  reached  the  udder. 
The  attention  of  the  Chief  of  the  Cattle  Bureau  was  called  in  each 
case  to  the  existence  of  tuberculosis,  and  in  all  of  the  above  cases 
the  owners  were  warned  to  withhold  the  milk  of  the  particular 
animals  from  the  market,  attention  being  called  at  the  same  time 
to  the  fact  that  the  sale  of  milk  from  a  diseased  animal  is  punish- 
able by  fine. 

The  majority  of  herds  observed  were  found  to  be  kept  in  a  con- 
dition far  removed  from  cleanliness.  In  some  cases  an  entire 
herd  would  be  found  to  be  encrusted,  chiefly  on  the  hinder  parts, 
with  wet  and  dry  excrement.  In  many  barns  the  conditions  were 
found  to  be  such  that  a  cow,  however  clean  she  might  be  on  intro- 
duction, could  not  fail  to  be  dirty  to  an  objectionable  extent 
within  twenty-four  hours.  As  though  the  natural  opportunities 
afforded  for  becoming  filthy  were  not  already  ample,  in  no  fewer 
than  182  cases  was  horse  manure  employed  as  a  bedding  material. 

Inquiry  developed  the  fact  that  on  most  farms  not  only  are  the 
cows  never  groomed,  but  usually  not  even  their  udders  are  wiped 
off  before  the  process  of  milking  is  begun. 

Condition  of  Stables 

Light.  It  is  remarkable  to  what  extent  the  importance  of  Hght, 
both  as  a  purifying  agent  and  as  a  necessary  condition  to  health 
and  well-being  of  cows,  is  neglected.  In  a  large  number  of  the 
cow  stables  no  provision  whatever  existed  for  the  admission  of 


INSPECTION  OF  DAIRIES  337 

light,  the  open  door  being  its  only  point  of  ingress.  In  some 
instances  what  was  formerly  a  glass  window  had  been  replaced  by 
a  board,  or  the  glass,  having  been  broken,  had  been  replaced  with 
wood  or  a  bundle  of  straw  or  other  material,  to  prevent  draft. 
Cases  were  found  where  the  single  window  provided  had  lost 
its  utility  through  being  obstructed  by  accumulated  manure.  In 
many  cases  an  insufficient  number  of  windows,  or  a  sufficiently 
large  number  of  windows,  of  inadequate  size,  were  found.  The 
total  number  of  suggestions  sent  concerning  improvement  in 
lighting  was  536. 

Ventilation.  Contrary  to  expectation,  the  proportion  of  ill- 
ventilated  barns  was  found  to  be  small.  In  only  79  cases  was  it 
found  necessary  to  advise  the  provision  of  better  facilities  for 
removal  of  foul  air  and  admission  of  fresh  air,  and  in  only  5 
instances  were  the  cattle  found  to  be  so  crowded  as  to  have  a  far 
too  small  allowance  of  cubic  space  per  head. 

General  Cleanliness.  In  the  great  majority  of  stables  general 
uncleanliness  was  the  rule.  Obviously,  the  parts  most  likely  to 
be  unclean  were  the  platforms  and  the  spaces  back  of  the  cows. 
In  very  many  cases,  however,  the  condition  of  every  part  of  the 
barn  was  one  of  filth. 

Of  the  1,720  stables  which  showed  defects  of  one  kind  or 
another,  no  fewer  than  1,437  were  in  need  of  general  cleaning 
and  whitewashing.  Other  objectionable  conditions  which  were 
made  the  subject  of  correspondence  were  106  cases  of  accumulated 
manure  back  of  or  near  the  cows;  17  cases  of  accumulation  of 
liquid  manure  in  depressions  in  the  barn  floor;  3  cases  of  abso- 
lute blocking  of  windows  with  manure;  132  cases  of  proximity 
of  open  privies  to  the  tie-up ;  7  cases  of  deposits  of  human  excre- 
ment over  the  floors;  3  cases  of  presence  of  exceedingly  filthy  calf 
pens;  2  cases  of  use  of  the  tie-up  for  slaughtering  purposes,  the 
blood  and  refuse  being  improperly  cared  for;  39  cases  of  floors  so 
far  out  of  repair  as  to  preclude  all  chance  of  cleanliness;  and  14 
cases  of  need  of  a  proper  system  of  drainage. 

In  not  a  few  instances,  while  the  cow  barn  and  all  its  appoint- 
ments may  be  maintained  in  a  properly  clean  condition,  its  cellar 
appears  to  be  regarded  as  of  little  importance;  but  a  dirty  cellar, 


338  STATE  SANITATION 

especially  in  summer,  when  insect  life  is  active,  may  be  quite  as 
prolific  of  trouble  as  a  dirty  tie-up.  In  255  cases  the  owner  was 
requested  to  provide  some  means  for  the  suitable  draining  of  the 
cellar,  and  in  284  cases  to  remove  the  accumulated  manure.  In 
one  instance  the  cellar  contained  the  accumulation  of  three 
years,  and  in  another  of  fifteen  months. 

In  no  first-class  dairy  would  the  keeping  of  other  animals  than 
those  which  ordinarily  belong  there  be  tolerated ;  but  in  many  of 
our  cow  barns  it  appears  to  be  regarded  as  not  objectionable  to 
stable  horses,  to  fatten  pigs,  and  to  allow  sheep,  goats  and  fowls 
to  wander  unrestrained.  Letters  were  sent  to  272  individuals, 
requesting  the  separation  of  the  horses  from  the  cow  tie-up  by 
means  of  suitable  partitions;  and  to  227,  requesting  the  removal 
of  swine  and  their  pens  to  a  proper  distance.  In  47  cases  the  cow 
barn  was  used  for  the  storage  of  ordinary  city  swill,  and  in  one 
case  this  material  was  stored  wholesale,  the  owner  being  a  city 
scavenger,  and  dealing  in  swill,  as  merchandise,  with  his  neigh- 
bors. In  all  these  cases,  and  in  3 1  in  which  fermenting  and  rotting 
brewers'  grains  were  stored,  3  in  which  fertilizers  were  stored, 
16  where  rotten  fruit  and  vegetables  were  scattered  about,  and  8 
in  which  dead  fowl  were  undergoing  decomposition,  the  removal 
of  all  offensive  material  was  directed.  Letters  were  sent  to  14 
individuals,  suggesting  that  sheep,  goats  or  poultry  be  confined, 
and  not  allowed  access  to  the  tie-ups. 

Condition  of  Cow  Yards.  Partly  due  to  carelessness  and  partly 
to  natural  difl&culties  in  the  way  of  drainage,  it  happens  not  infre- 
quently that  the  cow  yard,  which  should  be  at  least  a  proper  place 
for  outdoor  exercise  of  the  stock  if  desired,  is  converted  into  a 
slough  from  which  the  gaseous  products  of  decomposition  of  liquid 
and  soHd  manure  are  given  off  in  such  amounts  as  to  be  percep- 
tible hundreds  of  feet  distant.  In  52  cases  the  owner  was  re- 
quested to  clean  his  cow  yard;  and  in  149  to  drain  off  the  pools 
of  liquid,  foul-smelling  manure,  and  to  fill  in  the  depressions  and 
make  the  place  less  of  a  public  and  private  nuisance. 

Water  Supplies.  Inasmuch  as  the  water  supply  of  the  cow  barn 
is  frequently  employed  for  purposes  of  cleansing  the  utensils 
used  in  the  production  and  sale  of  milk,  it  is  of  extra  importance 


INSPECTION  OF  DAIRIES  339 

that  this  should  be  protected  from  pollution.  Ordinary  polluted 
water  may  cause  no  injury  whatever  in  animals  that  drink  it,  but 
it  may  be  productive  of  disastrous  effects  in  man  when  used  for 
the  cleansing  of  cans,  if  the  polluting  material  contain  the  germs 
of  infectious  human  diseases;  and  experience  has  shown  that  not 
a  few  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  have  occurred  in  this  state  and 
elsewhere  in  consequence  of  the  pollution  of  the  water  supply  by 
the  excreta  of  persons  sick  therewith  or  convalescent  therefrom; 
and  in  a  number  of  instances  it  has  been  proved  that  milk 
responsible  for  the  dissemination  of  typhoid  fever  has  been  pro- 
duced at  farms  where  persons,  either  sick  or  convalescent,  were 
employed  about  the  cows.  Letters  were  sent  in  reference  to  water 
supply  as  follows :  advising  the  protection  of  the  well  from  surface 
drainage,  37;  condemning  the  use  of  well  water  on  account  of 
obvious  contamination,  15;  advising  the  protection  of  the  milk 
trough  in  which  the  milk  is  cooled,  9;  advising  a  change  in  the 
method  of  disposal  of  the  kitchen  drainage,  6 ;  directing  the  clos- 
ure of  an  open  cesspool,  2;  and  directing  attention  to  the  fact 
that  pigs  were  wallowing  in  the  water  used  not  only  for  the  water- 
ing of  stock  but  for  the  cleansing  of  utensils,  i. 

Care  of  Milking  Pails  and  Other  Milk  Utensils.  It  is  generally 
recognized  that  dirty  milking  pails  and  other  utensils  beget  sour 
milk,  with  consequent  loss  to  the  producer;  therefore,  in  most 
cases  these  vessels  are  looked  after  with  reasonable  diligence. 
But  it  is  not  enough  that  they  should  be  made  clean;  they  should 
be  kept  in  a  suitable  place,  and  under  such  conditions  that  they 
may  not  become  invaded  by  dust,  containing,  as  is  always  the 
case,  bacteria  of  various  kinds.  The  necessity  of  providing  a  milk 
room  for  the  proper  handhng  and  storage  of  milk  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  637  owners.  On  some  of  the  worst-kept  farms 
the  grossest  carelessness  was  observed  in  the  treatment  of  cans 
and  other  vessels.  In  24  instances  cans  were  observed  scattered 
over  the  floor;  in  6,  scattered  about  the  yard;  in  2,  lying  about 
in  the  dirty  cellar;  in  3,  standing  m  manure.  At  11  places  cans 
and  other  utensils,  strainers,  etc.,  were  found  standing  in  un- 
washed condition,  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  apparently  ready  for 
use  again.  In  one  case  the  milking  pail  was  found  doing  service 
in  what  passed  for  a  laundry. 


340  STATE  SANITATION 

Other  matters  called  to  the  attention  of  producers  were  as 
follows:  the  undesirability  of  keeping  cows  in  the  house  cellar, 
2 ;  the  washing  of  milk  cans  and  pails  in  dirty  water,  i ;  the  cool- 
ing of  milk  (a)  in  dirty  water,  2 ;  (b)  in  a  butter  tub,  i ;  (c)  in  a 
wash  tub,  I ;  (d)  in  a  dirty  tub,  3 ;  (e)  in  a  tub  standing  in  the 
sun,  5;  (/)  in  a  manure  cellar,  13 ;  (^)  in  a  house  cellar,  2 ;  {h)  in  a 
drinking  trough,  12;  the  presence  of  a  decomposing  dead  horse 
in  the  cow  yard,  i ;  the  presence  of  rotting  ensilage  in  the  tie-up, 
2 ;  the  presence  of  decomposing  cow  entrails  underneath  the  tie- 
up,  i;  the  necessity  of  raising  barn  to  such  a  height  from  the 
ground  that  Hquid  manure  would  not  spurt  up  between  the  boards 
of  the  floor  under  the  weight  of  a  person  crossing  the  same,  3 ;  the 
use  of  cotton  waste  as  bedding,  8. 


XXXII 

A  REVIEW  OF  TWENTY-ONE  YEARS'  EXPERIMENTS 

UPON  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  SEWAGE  AT  THE 

LAWRENCE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

By  H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  DeM.  Gage 

[The  complete  paper,  of  which  this  is  a  part,  covers  nearly  three  hundred  pages. 
It  gives  an  account  of  the  principal  results  obtained  at  the  Station  from  1887  to 
1908.    Annual  Report,  1908,  p.  251.  —  G.  C.  W.J 

The  year  1908  is  the  twenty-first  of  the  operation  of  the  Law- 
rence Experiment  Station.  The  act  of  the  Legislature,  under 
which  the  systematic  work  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health  on  the  examination  of  water  supplies,  the  purification  of 
sewage  and  water,  etc.,  was  begun,  was  passed  in  1886.  The 
report  of  the  Board  for  the  year  1887  contained  an  account  of  the 
establishment  of  the  experiment  station  and  of  the  preliminary 
work  done  there.  A  chemical  laboratory  was  installed  in  1888 
and  a  laboratory  for  bacteriological  and  microscopical  work  in 
1890.  These  laboratories  have  been  enlarged  and  improved  from 
time  to  time,  and  in  them  about  50,000  chemical  and  150,000 
bacterial  analyses  have  been  made  during  the  past  twenty  years, 
and  new  and  more  accurate  chemical,  biological  and  physical 
methods  have  been  developed  for  the  study  of  water,  sewage, 
sands,  soils,  etc.  Beginning  with  studies  upon  intermittent  sand 
filtration  of  sewage  and  water,  together  with  laboratory  investi- 
gations upon  nitrification,  the  causes  of  the  reduction  of  bacteria 
by  filtration,  etc.,  the  work  of  the  station  has  grown  constantly, 
and  at  the  present  time  includes  experimental  investigations 
tending  toward  the  development  of  scientific  methods  of  sewage 
purification,  of  the  purification  of  manufacturing  wastes  of  many 
kinds,  and  other  special  investigations  in  sanitary  science  which 
will  be  referred  to  later. 

It  may  be  said  fairly  that  the  investigations  at  the  Lawrence 
Experiment  Station  laid  the  foundations  for  the  scientific  treat- 


342  STATE  SANITATION 

ment  of  sewage  and  have  given  the  initiative  for  similar  investi- 
gations in  this  and  other  countries.  The  work  was  planned  by 
Hiram  F.  Mills,  A.M.,  C.E.,  a  member  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  and  has  been  carried  on  under  his  general  supervision. 
A  full  account  of  the  early  equipment  of  the  station  and  of  the 
work  done  there  during  the  years  1888,  1889  and  1890  is  to  be 
found  in  a  special  report  of  the  Board  for  1890  prepared  by  Mr. 
Mills.  This  special  report  has  been  for  many  years  the  most 
widely  known  work  upon  sewage  purification.  The  work  of  sub- 
sequent years  has  been  published  in  the  annual  reports,  and 
detailed  information  should  be  sought  in  these  documents.^  It  is 
hoped  to  give  here,  however,  a  clear  idea  of  the  main  work  carried 
on  at  the  station  during  the  past  twenty-one  years. 

Resume  of  Work  in  Different  Years 

The  report  by  Hiram  F.  Mills,  A.M.,  C.E.,  mentioned  above, 
covers  thoroughly  the  investigations  made  during  1888,  1889  and 
1890  upon  the  subject  of  sewage  purification.  During  these  three 
years,  sewage  had  been  filtered  intermittently  through  gravel- 
stones,  through  filters  made  of  various  grades  of  gravel  and 
through  sand,  even  through  a  fine  sand  averaging  but  0.004  inch 
in  diameter,  —  a  fine  granular  dust,  —  as  well  as  through  soils 

^  At  the  beginning  of  this  work,  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  was  appointed  chemist  to  the  Board  and  given  general 
supervision  of  the  chemical  work,  both  at  Lawrence  and  Boston.  When,  in  1895, 
Dr.  Drown  became  president  of  Lehigh  University,  he  was  made  consulting  chemist 
to  the  Board,  and  served  in  that  capacity  until  his  death  in  1904.  At  the  station  Mr. 
Allen  Hazen  was  in  charge  imtil  March,  1893,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  George 
W.  Fuller.  Since  August,  1895,  a  period  of  fourteen  years,  Mr.  H.  W.  Clark,  who 
had  been  connected  with  the  Lawrence  work  almost  from  its  start,  and  who  also 
succeeded  Dr.  Drown  as  chemist  to  the  Board,  has  been  in  charge  at  the  station, 
and  since  1896  of  the  Boston  laboratories  of  the  department  of  water  supply  and 
sewerage.  Mr.  Fred  B.  Forbes  and  Mr.  W.  R.  Copeland  have  been  prominent 
among  the  many  assistants  at  the  station  during  the  first  twenty-one  years,  and  Mr. 
Forbes  is  still  in  the  employ  of  the  Board  as  chief  assistant  in  the  laboratories  at  the 
State  House.  Mr.  Stephen  DeM.  Gage,  biologist,  and  Mr.  George  O.  Adams, 
chemist,  are  the  chief  assistants  at  the  station  at  the  present  time,  Mr.  Gage  having 
been  connected  with  the  work  since  1896  and  Mr.  Adams  since  1900.  For  short 
periods  in  the  beginning,  the  bacterial  work  was  in  the  charge  of  various  biologists; 
but  in  November,  1888,  Dr.  William  T.  Sedgwick  was  appointed  biologist  to  the 
Board,  and  so  remained  imtU  1896. 


LAWRENCE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  343 

and  peats.  It  was  found  that,  with  all  the  filters,  from  the 
coarsest  to  the  finest,  purification  by  nitrification  took  place  best 
when  the  sewage  appUed  was  adapted  to  the  working  ability  of 
the  filter,  and  the  surface  not  allowed  to  become  clogged  by 
organic  matter,  to  the  exclusion  of  air.  It  was  shown,  further- 
more, that  fine  soils  retained  water  so  long  that  the  quantity  of 
sewage  which  could  be  applied  was  small,  although  such  a  filter 
might  give  an  effluent  free  from  bacteria.  With  thicker  layers  of 
these  fine  soils,  moreover,  it  was  found  that  nitrification  did  not 
take  place,  and  that  the  organic  matter  in  the  efifluent  was  nearly 
as  great  as  in  the  sewage,  although  no  bacteria  probably  passed 
through  the  filter.  It  was  found  that  peat  filters,  though  but  one 
foot  in  depth,  were  practically  impervious  to  hquid,  and  that 
intermittent  filtration  with  such  material  was  impracticable. 
Experiments  with  gravel-stones  gave  the  best  illustration  of  the 
essential  character  of  intermittent  filtration  of  sewage.  Filters 
were  constructed  of  stones,  so  large  that  even  the  coarser  sus- 
pended particles  of  the  sewage  were  not  removed;  yet  "  the  slow 
movement  of  the  sewage  in  thin  films  over  the  surface  of  the 
stones,  with  air  in  contact,  caused  a  removal  for  some  months  of 
97  per  cent  of  the  organic  nitrogenous  matter  as  well  as  99  per 
cent  of  bacteria."  These  filters  were  the  forerunners  of  the 
sprinkHng  or  trickling  filters  now  so  well  known  in  sewage  puri- 
fication. It  was  found  also,  and  stated  in  the  special  report  for 
1890,  that  "  the  mechanical  separation  of  any  part  of  a  sewage  by 
straining  through  sand  is  but  an  incident  which,  under  some  con- 
ditions, favorably  modifies  the  results,  but  the  essential  condi- 
tions are  very  slow  motion  of  very  thin  films  of  liquid  over  the 
surface  of  the  particles  that  have  spaces  between  them  sufficient 
to  allow  air  to  be  in  contact  with  the  films  of  liquid.  .  .  .  With 
these  conditions  it  is  essential  that  certain  bacteria  be  present  to 
aid  in  the  process  of  nitrification."  It  appeared,  furthermore,  and 
was  so  stated  in  the  same  report,  that  the  "  filters  gave  an  effluent 
some  time  before  nitrification  began  which  contained  from  20  to 
40  per  cent  as  much  free  and  albuminoid  ammonia  as  the  sewage. 
During  the  cold  months  of  the  very  cold  winter  in  which  the  first 
filters  were  started  there  was  an  important  step  in  purification 


344  STATE  SANITATION 

going  on.  This  was  the  conversion  of  albuminoid  ammonia  to  free 
ammonia,  or,  to  state  the  case  more  definitely,  it  was  the  burning 
up  of  a  part  of  the  organic  matter  by  the  combination  of  oxygen 
with  some  of  the  carbon,  producing  carbonic  acid,  and  leaving  the 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  that  were  contained  with  this  carbon  to 
form  ammonia,  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  combined  nitrogen 
which  in  our  analyses  appears  as  albuminoid  ammonia.  This  is  as 
complete  a  destruction  of  organic  matter,  as  far  as  it  goes,  as  if 
the  free  ammonia  were  again  oxidized,  forming  nitric  acid  or 
nitrates,  but  this  process  seldom,  if  ever,  carries  the  destruction 
of  the  organic  impurities  of  the  sewage  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
resulting  liquid  contains  as  little  impurity  as  when  nitrification 
takes  place.  We  find  further  that  this  process  of  reducing  the 
albuminoid  ammonia  is  not  so  destructive  to  bacteria  as  the  more 
complete  process  of  nitrification.  It  is,  however,  a  process  of 
purification,  and  the  conditions  of  intermittent  filtration  are  those 
most  favorable  to  this  step  in  purification." 

This  special  report  for  1890  gave  the  results  observed  in  all  the 
sewage  filters,  nineteen  in  number,  that  were  operated  up  to  the 
end  of  1890.  It  gave  also  many  data  in  regard  to  special  investi- 
gations concerning  the  mechanical  and  physical  characteristics 
of  the  materials  employed  in  filtration;  the  storage  of  nitrogen; 
time  of  flow  of  sewage  through  filters  five  feet  in  depth,  this  being 
measured  by  the  change  in  chlorine  contents  of  the  effluent; 
special  studies  upon  nitrification  and  nitrifying  organisms; 
articles  upon  the  chemical  and  biological  work  at  the  station, 
chemical  precipitation  of  sewage,  etc. 

The  report  for  1891  took  up  the  subjects  of  the  permanency  of 
filters;  the  mechanical  composition  of  materials  used  in  filters, 
together  with  the  conclusions  drawn  from  a  study  of  the  materials 
and  the  results  of  filtration,  as  showing  the  capacity  of  each 
material  to  purify  sewage;  the  best  method  of  applying  sewage 
to  different  grades  of  sand,  etc.,  together  with  further  experiments 
on  the  bacterial  efficiency  of  the  filters  at  that  time  in  operation. 
Early  in  this  year  a  gravel  filter  was  operated  at  a  rate  of  220,000 
gallons  per  acre  daily,  the  sewage  being  applied  in  sixty  or  seventy 
doses  per  day.    Good  nitrification  results  were  obtained  without 


LAWRENCE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  345 

artificial  aeration  of  the  filter;  in  fact,  this  was  a  true  trickling 
filter  as  now  known. 

In  1892  and  1893  special  studies  were  made  of  the  care  of 
sewage  filters;  stratification  and  the  effect  of  horizontal  layers; 
filtration  of  sewage  containing  dyestuffs;  the  rate  of  filtration 
through  various  materials;  the  causes  of  clogging  of  sewage 
filters,  and  the  removal  of  this  clogging  matter  from  the  sand.  In 
these  years,  also,  studies  of  rapid  filtration  aided  by  artificial 
aeration  of  the  filters  were  begun.  The  report  for  1892  contained, 
in  addition,  a  very  important  article  upon  the  physical  properties 
of  sands  and  gravels  with  especial  reference  to  their  use  in 
filtration. 

In  1894  a  general  review  of  the  work  upon  sewage  purification 
at  the  station  up  to  and  including  that  year  was  given.  Special 
investigations  were  made  at  that  time  upon  the  composition  of 
sewage  and  the  changes  which  occurred  in  sewage  as  it  ages.  It 
was  shown,  for  instance,  that  storage  of  fresh  Lawrence  sewage  for 
twenty-four  hours  doubled  the  free  ammonia  and  decreased  the 
organic  nitrogen  present  one-half.  Other  changes,  such  as  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  bacteria  present,  also  took  place.  This 
work  antedated  the  operation  of  septic  tanks.  At  this  time  a 
series  of  sewage  samples  were  collected  at  different  periods  of 
the  day  from  various  sewage-disposal  areas  and  institutions  in 
the  state,  and  were  examined  to  show  the  varying  strengths  of  the 
sewage  at  different  hours,  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter  of 
different  kinds  in  the  sewage  per  person  contributing  to  the  flow. 

In  1895  investigations  were  continued  as  to  the  best  methods  of 
treating  sewage  filters  to  insure  permanency;  on  the  best  pre- 
liminary treatment  of  sewage  to  remove  sludge  before  filtration 
and  the  different  methods  of  aerating  sewage  filters.  In  this  year, 
also,  were  made  the  first  experiments  upon  the  purification  by 
filtration  of  industrial  sewage  as  seen  in  tanneries,  paper  mills, 
wool-scouring  works,  etc.  The  stable  character  of  the  effluents 
from  trickhng  filters  operated  at  high  rates  and  aerated  a  portion 
of  the  time  by  means  of  a  current  of  air  was  first  shown  at  this 
period.  It  was  found  that  "  the  organic  matter  in  the  liquids, 
after  rapid  filtration  combined  with  aeration,  is  of  a  different 


346  STATE  SANITATION 

character  from  the  organic  matter  in  the  sewage  resulting  from 
other  sludge-removing  processes.  That  is  to  say,  even  when  the 
organic  matter,  as  shown  by  the  albuminoid  ammonia,  is  present 
in  quantities  as  great  as  in  the  other  partially  purified  sewages,  it 
has  passed  through  such  chemical  and  biological  changes  that  it 
develops  offensive  odors  very  slowly  on  standing."  These  obser- 
vations were  made  prior  to  the  English  studies  upon  the  stability 
of  the  effluents  of  such  filters.  In  this  year,  furthermore,  certain 
filters  of  coarse  materials,  gravel- stones,  pieces  of  coke,  etc.,  were 
operated  at  rates  of  1,000,000  gallons  per  acre  daily,  and  were 
aerated  generally  only  from  one  to  two  and  one-half  hours  daily. 
The  effluents  of  these  filters  contained  high  nitrates,  were  gener- 
ally stable,  and,  in  fact,  were  practically  similar  to  those  after- 
wards obtained  from  iflters  of  Hke  materials  operated  at  high 
rates  without  even  the  slight  aeration  given  to  these  filters. 

In  1896  and  1897  much  time  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
purification  of  industrial  sewage,  and  practicable  methods  for 
the  purification  of  some  of  these  wastes  are  definitely  described  in 
the  reports  for  these  years.  From  the  first,  studies  looking  to  the 
removal  of  the  matters  in  suspension  in  sewage  by  sedimentation, 
chemical  precipitation  and  coke  straining  were  made.  In  1897 
more  elaborate  experiments  were  begun  on  the  purification  of 
sewage  by  so-called  contact  filters,  although  one  such  filter  had 
been  studied  at  the  station  in  1894.  During  this  year  (1897)  a 
trickling  filter  of  clinker  was  operated  also.  To  this  the  sewage 
was  passed  by  means  of  overhead  pipes  and  was  aerated  and  dis- 
tributed by  the  dash-plate  method.  This  trickling  filter,  and  all 
others  started  after  this  date,  received  no  artificial  aeration. 

In  1898  studies  were  continued  on  the  disposal  of  sewage,  both 
fresh  and  stale,  when  treated  in  septic  tanks;  on  the  purification 
of  industrial  sewages;  on  the  purification  of  sewage  both  by  sand 
and  contact  filters.  Early  in  1899  there  was  put  into  operation  a 
trickling  filter  ten  and  one-half  feet  in  depth,  constructed  of 
broken  stone  and  operated  at  the  rate  of  2,000,000  gallons  per 
acre  daily.  In  1899,  also,  studies  of  septic  tanks  and  of  the  puri- 
fication of  septic  sewage  were  continued,  and  the  first  tank  for  the 
treatment  of  sludge  alone,  after  preliminary  treatment  of  the 


LAWRENCE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  347 

sewage  in  ordinary  settling  tanks,  was  put  into  operation  and 
continued  for  several  years.  This  variety  of  septic  tank  and 
method  of  sludge  disposal  has  since  become  well  known.  The 
first  hydrolytic  tank  was  started  also  at  the  station  in  1898,  "  as 
it  had  become  evident  that  the  greatest  work  in  septic  tanks 
occurred  where  the  bacteria  were  most  numerous,  —  as  on  the 
sides,  bottom  and  top  of  the  tank,  —  it  was  considered  that  a 
tank  filled  with  coarse,  broken  stone  would  afford  a  very  extensive 
foothold  and  breeding  place  for  the  classes  of  bacteria  necessary 
for  sludge  disposal,"  ^  and  the  tank  was  so  arranged  that  the 
sewage  passed  upward  through  this  stone.  As  the  result  of  other 
researches,  it  was  shown  that  prolongation  of  anaerobic  action 
might  impede  subsequent  purification  by  filtration.  There  were 
made  also  this  year  special  studies  relating  to  the  purification  of 
the  wastes  from  creameries,  and  to  the  action  of  iron  and  iron 
oxides  on  the  purification  of  sewage  by  filtration. 

In  1900  analyses  and  measurements  of  the  gas  produced  by 
septic  tanks  were  made  and  investigations  concerning  the  effi- 
ciency of  septic  treatment  of  different  classes  of  sewage;  also 
experiments  upon  the  sterilization  of  septic  sewage  to  show 
whether  or  not  the  air  that  it  was  necessary  to  introduce  into 
some  classes  of  septic  sewage,  before  efficient  purification  by 
filtration  could  be  assured,  was  required  because  of  the  rapid  use 
of  the  oxygen  by  bacteria  or  because  of  its  absorption  by  organic 
matter  and  gases.  Operation  of  the  hydrolytic  tank,  together 
with  various  trickling  filters,  and  the  study  of  purification  of 
manufacturing  wastes  were  continued. 

In  1 901  a  thorough  investigation  was  made  of  the  stability  of 
the  effluents  and  of  the  organic  matter  left  in  the  effluents  of  con- 
tact and  trickling  filters,  together  with  observations  on  the 
improvement  of  such  efffuents  when  mixed  with  river  water.  The 
rate  and  degree  of  clogging  of  contact  filters  and  the  methods 
necessary  to  remove  this  clogging  material  were  studied  also.  In 
this  year  contact  filters  of  roofing-slate  and  brick,  with  regular 
spaces  between  each  pair  of  slates  or  bricks,  were  first  put  into 
operation.    Two  of  these  filters  are  described  in  the  report  for 

^  P.  426,  report  for  1899. 


348  STATE  SANITATION 

1 901,  the  slate  filters  being  similar  to  those  operated  in  more 
recent  years  in  England  by  Dibdin. 

In  1902  studies  of  contact  and  trickling  filters,  especially  those 
of  the  latter,  were  continued,  together  with  special  investigations 
concerning  nitrification  and  the  removal  of  organic  matter  from 
the  upper  layers  of  sand  filters. 

In  1903  special  efforts  were  made  to  learn  the  cause  of  the 
poorer  winter  nitrification  in  the  older  intermittent  sand  filters, 
in  order  to  improve  the  work  of  these  filters.  Studies  of  septic 
tanks  and  of  the  operation  of  contact  filters  constructed  of  dif- 
ferent materials  and  depths,  with  special  regard  to  permanency 
of  operation,  were  continued,  together  with  allied  studies  upon 
the  stability  of  their  effluents.  Studies  were  made  also  of  the 
purification  of  sewage  by  trickhng  filters  of  different  materials 
and  different  depths,  and  investigations  in  regard  to  the  stability 
of  the  effluents  of  these  filters  and  experiments  upon  sedimenta- 
tion, secondary  filtration,  etc.,  of  these  effluents  were  undertaken. 
Numerous  experiments  were  made  on  the  purification  of  dye 
liquors  and  the  waste  from  gas  works,  together  with  studies  on 
methods  of  analysis  with  special  regard  to  the  comparative  value 
of  albuminoid  ammonia  and  Kjeldahl  determinations  of  nitrogen; 
of  incubation  of  effluents;  and  of  the  nitrification  and  denitrifi- 
cation  caused  by  sand,  effluents  and  species  of  bacteria  from 
filters  in  which  either  nitrification  or  reducing  actions  were 
occurring. 

The  year  1904  was  devoted  largely  to  the  improvement  of  the 
sand  filters  that  had  been  in  operation  for  sixteen  years,  and 
to  studies  of  methods  for  the  disposal  of  nitrogenous  and  other 
organic  matters  by  these  filters;  special  studies  of  nitrification; 
studies  of  the  respective  amounts  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  oxidized, 
stored  or  liberated  from  experimental  and  municipal  sand  filters ; 
studies  of  the  determination  of  acidity  or  alkalinity  as  an  index 
of  the  degree  of  purification  of  filter  effluents;  studies  of  the 
bacteriology  and  biochemistry  of  sewage  purification.  A  new 
method  for  the  determination  of  turbidity  of  the  effluents  of  filters 
and  of  water  was  developed  and  first  used  during  this  year. 
Studies  were  made  also  of  the  time  of  passage  of  sewage  through 


LAWRENCE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  349 

trickling  filters  constructed  of  different  materials  and  of  different 
depths,  and  of  the  rapidity  of  oxidation  and  purification  of  these 
filters. 

In  1905  a  continuation  was  made  of  the  studies  of  the  organic 
matters,  nitrogen,  fats,  carbon,  etc.,  in  sludge  and  in  sewage,  and 
of  the  same  substances  stored  in  filters;  studies  of  the  relative 
amounts  of  nitrogen,  carbon  and  fatty  matters  in  sewage,  sludge 
and  the  effluents  of  trickling  and  contact  filters  and  appropriate 
methods  for  their  analysis.  Moreover,  special  studies  were  taken 
up  again  as  to  the  refiltration  of  trickling  filter  eflluents  through 
sand  filters. 

In  1906  a  complete  resume  was  given  of  the  comparative  value 
of  sand,  contact  and  trickling  filters  for  the  disposal  of  organic 
matter,  and  the  comparative  rates  at  which  such  filters  can  be 
operated;  of  the  rate  of  filtration  and  amount  of  suspended 
matter  in  sewage  applied  to  sand  filters  as  related  to  volume  of 
sand  removed;  of  the  coagulation  and  mechanical  filtration  of  the 
effluents  of  trickling  filters,  together  with  more  complete  studies 
of  methods  for  the  application  of  sewage  to  trickling  filters;  of  the 
comparative  rates  of  filtration  maintained  by  sand  filters;  of 
continued  studies  on  the  purification  of  industrial  wastes. 

In  1907  the  most  important  special  work  was  a  continued 
study  of  methods  for  the  distribution  of  sewage  upon  trickling 
filters  and  observations  on  the  refiltration  of  trickling  filter 
effluents  through  sand,  coagulation  and  mechanical  filters. 

The  number  of  filters  at  the  station  —  sand,  contact  and  trick- 
ling filters  —  has  increased  steadily  until,  at  the  end  of  1908,  two 
hundred  and  fifty  filters  for  the  purification  of  sewage  have  been 
in  operation.  Since  1895,  moreover,  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  purification  of  wastes  from  manufacturing  industries, 
and,  as  a  result,  reasonable  and  efficient  methods  for  the  treat- 
ment of  most  of  these  wastes  have  been  developed  and  published 
in  the  annual  reports.  Among  the  wastes  studied  have  been 
those  from  tanneries,  paper  mills,  carpet  mills,  paint  mills^ 
woolen  mills,  wool-scouring  works,  dye  works,  shoddy  mills, 
creameries,  yeast  factories,  glue  works,  gas  works,  etc. 


XXXIII 

THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  IN 
MASSACHUSETTS,  1907-12  ^ 

By  Dr.  Mark  W.  Richardson 

[Forty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1912,  p.  ssS-~\ 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  communication  to  present  a  de- 
tailed discussion  of  the  disease  known  as  anterior  poHomyelitis, 
or  infantile  paralysis.  Its  scope  will  be  restricted,  rather,  to  a 
consideration  of  those  facts  and  observations  which  have  been 
noted  in  the  experience  in  Massachusetts  for  the  years  1907-12, 
inclusive,  and  which  have  seemed  rather  unusual  and  therefore 
possibly  worthy  of  special  emphasis. 

In  the  first  place,  if  one  looks  at  the  map  of  Massachusetts  and 
observes  the  incidence  of  this  disease,  he  will  notice  that  there 
seems  to  be  a  distinct  preference  for  locaKties  situated  along  the 
river  beds.    In  1907,  for  instance,  the  incidence  of  the  disease 

1  Investigation  in  Massachusetts  of  the  disease  known  as  anterior  polio- 
myelitis, or  infantile  paralysis,  was  begun  in  1907,  at  the  instigation  of  Dr. 
Robert  W.  Lovett,  who  had  been  appointed  in  that  year  a  member  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health.  The  work  has  been  continued  ever  since  along  lines  which  have 
constantly  broadened,  and  the  Board  has  called  to  its  service  in  these  investigations 
the  assistance  of  a  considerable  number  of  investigators  and  advisers.  In  carrying 
out  details  of  the  work  the  Board  has  been  fortunate  in  having  the  advice  of  such 
men  as  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  chairman  of  the  Board,  Dr.  Robert  W.  Lovett,  mem- 
ber of  the  Board,  Professor  Theobald  Smith,  Professor  Milton  J.  Rosenau,  Professor 
John  L.  Morse  and  Dr.  J.  Homer  Wright.  In  the  field  work  Dr.  Phihp  A.  E.  Shep- 
pard  has  been  largely  concerned.  The  State  Inspectors  of  Health  in  their  respective 
districts  have  investigated  many  cases,  and  special  epidemics  have  been  the  subject 
of  more  detailed  investigation  by  Dr.  Herbert  C.  Emerson  of  Springfield,  Dr. 
Lyman  A.  Jones  of  North  Adams  and  Dr.  Thomas  P.  HenneUy  of  Pittsfield. 
Special  lines  of  investigation  have  been  pursued,  also,  by  Professor  Theobald  Smith, 
Professor  Milton  J.  Rosenau,  Dr.  Robert  B.  Osgood,  Dr.  William  P.  Lucas,  Dr. 
Arthur  W.  May,  Dr.  Benjamin  Wood,  Dr.  J.  W.  Hammond,  Jr.,  and  Mr.  Charles 
T.  Brues,  instructor  in  economic  entomology  in  Harvard  University.  A  paper  read 
at  the  Fifteenth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene  and  Demography,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  September  26,  1912. 

3SO 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  351 

was  especially  noticeable  in  the  Berkshire  district  along  the  banks 
of  the  Hoosac  and  Housatonic  rivers.  Furthermore,  the  valley 
of  the  Merrimack  seemed  also  to  be  especially  affected.  In  1908 
the  valley  of  the  Deerfield  River  was  the  seat  of  an  especially 
marked  epidemic.  It  may  be,  of  course,  that  this  apparent 
predilection  for  river  beds  is  of  no  special  significance,  and  may 
mean  only  that  river  beds  are  more  likely  to  be  more  densely 
populated  and  more  likely  to  have  ordinary  roads,  trolley  roads 
and  railroads  running  through  them  and  are  therefore  associated 
with  greater  possibilities  of  contact  for  larger  bodies  of  people. 
In  this  connection,  however,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
bodies  of  water  may  become  the  breeding  places  for  a  great 
variety  of  insects,  and  the  incidence  of  this  disease  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  bodies  of  water  may  be  shown  by  further  investigation 
to  be  due  to  a  greater  prevalence  in  those  districts  of  such  insects. 

Another  fact  brought  out  by  the  map  of  1907  would  seem  to 
be  that  the  distribution  of  infantile  paralysis  corresponded  in  a 
general  way  to  the  density  of  the  population,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion an  interesting  comparison  was  made  with  the  incidence 
of  cerebro-spinal  meningitis.  The  two  diseases  coincided  in 
localization  for  1907.  In  1908,  however,  the  grouping  was  largely 
different,  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  still  being  more  prevalent 
where  the  population  was  dense,  whereas  infantile  paralysis  saw 
its  greatest  epidemic  in  a  rural  community.  Furthermore,  it  was 
shown  that  the  maximum  incidence  of  infantile  paralysis  in  1907 
took  place  in  September,  whereas  in  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  the 
maximum  incidence  occurred  in  March.  As  far  as  this  compari- 
son went,  therefore,  there  seemed  to  be  no  parallel  between  these 
two  diseases  as  far  as  epidemiological  factors  were  concerned. 

The  year  1908  was  remarkable  for  a  small  but  well-marked 
epidemic  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  affecting  especially 
the  towns  on  and  adjacent  to  the  Deerfield  River.  In  fact,  the 
history  of  this  epidemic  shows  that  per  1,000  of  the  population 
the  town  of  Colrain  in  this  epidemic  suffered  far  and  away  the 
most  serious  damage  ever  noted  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1 910  there  occurred  what  seemed  at  the  time  to  be  a  very 
marked  epidemic  in  the  city  of  Springfield,  in  which  epidemic  at 


352  STATE  SANITATION 

least  150  cases  were  reported,  that  is  to  say,  an  incidence  of  1.6 
per  1,000  of  the  population;  and  yet  in  1908  the  town  of  Colrain, 
above  mentioned,  with  a  population  of  1,800  had  24  cases  of 
infantile  paralysis,  that  is  to  say,  13  cases  per  1,000  of  the  popu- 
lation. It  would  seem,  in  a  community  so  severely  attacked  as 
this  incidence  would  indicate,  that  there  would  be  abundant 
evidence  as  to  the  high  degree  of  its  contagiousness;  and  yet 
careful  inquiry  during  the  investigation  of  67  cases,  in  which  there 
was  little  or  no  attempt  at  isolation,  shows  that  there  were  166 
children  in  families  affected,  only  4  of  which  later  acquired  the 
disease.  In  addition  there  were  86  children  among  the  neighbors 
and  friends,  making  a  total  of  252  children.  Indeed,  the  total 
number  of  children  that  were  more  or  less  intimately  exposed  to 
the  66  cases  was  probably  twice  or  three  times  the  number  of- 
known  exposures. 

Another  point  of  interest  in  this  connection,  it  seems  to  me,  is 
the  following:  The  Colrain  district  in  1908  was  situated  only 
thirty  or  thirty-five  miles  from  the  city  of  Springfield.  It  was  in 
comparatively  intimate  relation  with  said  city  through  the  agency 
of  highroads,  trolley  roads  and  railroads.  There  was,  therefore, 
constant  interchange  of  population  between  these  two  districts, 
and  yet  in  1908  there  were  in  the  city  of  Springfield  but  two  cases 
of  infantile  paralysis,  and  the  intervening  towns  along  the 
Connecticut  River  showed  at  most  three  cases  in  Holyoke,  one  in 
Chicopee  and  one  in  Hatfield.  In  view  of  this  experience  it 
seems  to  me  that  whatever  one  may  think  of  its  contagiousness  as 
affecting  persons  in  immediate  contact  with  patients,  transfer  of 
the  infection  by  indirect  contact  through  third  persons  must  be 
very  rare,  if  it  ever  occurs. 

Another  interesting  point  which  has  been  noted  by  others  is 
that  a  region  once  severely  infected  is  not  apt  to  be  stricken 
during  the  succeeding  year,  and  the  Massachusetts  maps  of  1907 
and  1908  show  this  phenomenon  quite  plainly.  You  will  see 
that,  for  instance,  in  1907  the  Berkshire  district  had  a  consider- 
able number  of  cases,  whereas  in  1908  there  were  very  few. 
Furthermore,  you  will  note  that  the  Colrain  district,  which  was 
severely  affected  in  1908,  has  been  practically  free  from  the  dis- 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  353 

ease  ever  since.  In  1909  it  is  apparent  that  the  Berkshire  district 
again  became  severely  affected,  and  again  in  1910  the  number  of 
cases  dropped  off  very  markedly,  even  though  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut  River  at  this  time  showed  a  very  large  number  of 
cases. 

The  experience  in  Massachusetts  has  been  that  the  disease 
is  less  readily  transmissible  than  scarlet  fever,  typhoid  fever  or 
diphtheria,  but  of  course  in  such  a  comparison  the  abortive 
cases  of  infantile  paralysis  were  not  included.  Even  if  such 
cases  were  included,  however,  I  have  little  doubt  that  infantile 
paralysis,  as  compared  with  the  diseases  mentioned,  is  very  much 
less  contagious. 

Another  point  which  seems  to  stand  out  very  sharply  in  the 
Massachusetts  investigations  is  that  the  disease  is  very  distinctly 
one  of  suburban  or  rural  communities  rather  than  one  affecting 
more  especially  the  cities.  This  statement  rests  upon  the  observa- 
tions of  2,138  cases  which  have  been  analyzed  in  this  regard  for 
the  years  1907-10.  The  average  population  for  the  first  twenty- 
five  cities  and  towns  most  affected  proved  to  be  5,205,  whereas 
the  average  population  of  the  twenty-five  cities  and  towns  least 
affected  was  52,674,  that  is  to  say,  cities  and  towns  where  the 
disease  was  relatively  least  frequent  were  ten  times  as  large  on 
the  average  as  those  where  it  was  most  frequent.  As  a  control  to 
this  table  cases  of  scarlet  fever  reported  in  the  state  for  the  year 
1 910  showed  that  in  the  twenty-five  cities  and  towns  in  which 
scarlet  fever  was  most  prevalent  the  average  population  was 
6,446,  whereas  in  the  twenty-five  where  it  was  least  prevalent  the 
average  population  was  7,633.  In  other  words,  there  would 
seem  to  be  some  conditions  radically  different  in  the  spread  of 
infantile  paralysis  as  compared  with  scarlet  fever.  This  fact, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  experience  detailed  above  in  the 
relation  to  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  which  disease,  together 
with  scarlet  fever,  is  well  known  to  be  spread  by  contact  with  the 
nasopharyngeal  secretions,  must  be  given  very  weighty  considera- 
tion when  we  come  to  estimate  the  role  of  these  same  secretions 
in  the  spread  of  infantile  paralysis;  for  the  conditions  favoring 
the  transfer  of  these  secretions,  that  is  to  say,  the  density  of 


354  STATE  SANITATION 

population,  school  attendance,  overcrowding  in  winter  time  and 
unhygienic  surroundings  —  in  other  words,  conditions  found 
most  prominently  in  city  life  —  are  not  those  which  favor,  appar- 
ently, the  spread  of  infantile  paralysis.  Infantile  paralysis,  there- 
fore, being  in  Massachusetts,  at  least,  a  country  disease,  one 
would  look  for  some  determining  cause  in  country  conditions  as 
the  reason  for  this  apparent  predilection  for  the  rural  districts, 
and  as  a  result  of  investigation  it  is  found  that  country  children 
are  exposed  very  much  more  strongly  to  any  possible  influence 
which  animal  disease  might  have  upon  them  than  city  children. 
For  instance,  in  the  twenty-five  cities  and  towns  where  the 
disease  was  least  prevalent,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  larger  cities  and 
towns,  there  was  one  cow  to  very  eighty-four  inhabitants  and  one 
horse  to  every  thirty- two  inhabitants;  in  the  twenty-five  cities 
and  towns  where  the  disease  was  most  prevalent  there  was  one 
cow  to  eleven  inhabitants  and  one  horse  to  fourteen  inhabitants. 
This  table  became  very  much  more  striking  when  a  comparison 
was  made  of  the  numbers  of  swine,  fowls  and  dogs.  Now  it  is 
known  that  all  these  animals  are  subject  at  times  to  paralysis  of 
varying  types,  and  in  a  considerable  number  of  instances  paralysis 
in  animals  has  been  associated  with  paralysis  in  human  beings. 
A  considerable  number,  however,  of  paralyzed  animals  have  been 
examined,  and  emulsions  of  their  spinal  cords  have  been  injected 
into  monkeys  by  Professor  Theobald  Smith,  but  as  yet  with  no 
positive  results.  In  this  connection,  furthermore,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  country  children  are  much  more  subject  to  the  bites  of 
insects  than  city  children,  and  the  possibility  that  insects  may 
act  as  intermediate  hosts  for  the  virus  of  infantile  paralysis,  and 
may  convey  this  virus  from  infected  animals  or  infected  human 
beings  to  other  animals  or  human  beings,  must  always  be  strongly 
borne  in  mind.  In  191 1  an  investigation  along  this  Hne  of 
eighty-eight  cases  in  seventeen  cities  and  towns  showed  that  in 
all  instances  the  ordinary  stable  fly,  Stomoxys  calcitrans,  was 
present  in  or  about  the  house  of  the  infected  individual.  Ex- 
periments looking  to  the  possible  infection  of  monkeys  through 
the  bites  of  this  fly  will  be  reported  upon  later  by  Professor 
Rosenau. 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  355 

Meteorological  records  show  that  since  1904  Massachusetts  has 
been  subject  to  a  constant  deficiency  in  rainfall.  Such  a  deficiency 
would  naturally  be  associated  with  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
amount  of  dust.  When  it  is  considered,  however,  that  the  disease 
has  affected  greatly  other  portions  of  the  country  in  which  there 
has  been  no  such  deficiency  in  rainfall  the  importance  of  this 
failure  in  the  rain  supply  cannot  be  considered  to  be  great. 

An  investigation  as  to  the  occurrence  of  this  disease  in  institu- 
tions for  children  showed  that  such  children  were  much  less 
liable  to  the  disease  than  those  leading  an  ordinary  manner  of  life. 
They  would  seem  to  enjoy  as  a  result  of  their  somewhat  complete 
isolation  a  freedom  from  infection. 

Osgood  and  Lucas  found  an  active  virus  in  the  nasopharyngeal 
membrane  of  the  monkey  five  and  a  half  months  after  an  acute 
attack,  and  in  the  tonsils  of  a  human  being  six  months  after  an 
attack.  These  observations  have  naturally  a  very  important 
bearing  upon  the  question  of  contagion.  In  the  first  place,  it 
suggests  very  strongly  that  the  disease  is  transmitted  by  the 
secretions  of  the  nasopharyngeal  membranes,  and,  furthermore, 
that  danger  of  contagion  may  persist  for  many  months,  and 
possibly  longer;  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Rosenau,  Sheppard 
and  Amoss  failed  to  demonstrate  the  virus  in  the  mouth  and  nose 
of  eighteen  patients  in  various  stages  of  the  disease.  It  is,  of 
course,  well  known  that  positive  results  have  apparently  been 
secured  recently  by  KHng,  Wernstedt  and  Petterson.  In  other 
words,  we  have  to  do  here,  as  in  other  infectious  diseases,  with  the 
question  of  chronic  carriers  of  disease  and  their  relation  to  its 
propagation.  Its  importance  becomes  especially  marked  when 
we  consider  the  number  of  cases  which  have  been  in  contact  with 
chronic  cases  of  infantile  paralysis  previous  to  infection. 

This  persistence  of  the  virus  in  the  body  of  the  infected  indi- 
vidual may  be  important  from  another  point  of  view,  for  there  are 
a  number  of  cases  on  record  in  the  experience  in  Massachusetts 
in  which  the  patient  has  apparently  suffered  from  a  second  attack 
of  the  disease  a  few  weeks,  months  or  even  years  after  the  first 
attack.  If  such  a  second  infection  or  reinfection  may  occur,  it 
must  be  considered  as  possible  that  the  patient  between  attacks 


356  STATE  SANITATION 

may  be  a  chronic  carrier  of  the  disease  and  therefore  possibly 
responsible  for  secondary  cases  in  others.  Certain  it  is  that  very 
closely  circumscribed  localities  may  suJBFer  from  the  disease  over  a 
considerable  period  of  years.  For  instance,  in  one  of  the  larger 
cities  in  Massachusetts,  within  a  very  small  circumscribed  area, 
two  cases  occurred  in  1903,  two  cases  in  1908,  one  case  in  1909 
and  one  case  in  1 910.  The  suggestion  that  a  chronic  carrier  of  in- 
fection was  responsible  for  this  situation  is  very  strong.  As  is  seen 
from  the  map  for  1910  the  city  of  Springfield,  which  up  to  that 
time  had  suffered  a  considerable  and  unexplained  immunity  from 
this  disease,  suffered  from  a  quite  severe  epidemic.  Further- 
more, investigation  as  to  the  mortahty  from  this  and  other  acute 
diseases  in  said  city  showed  very  interesting  results  in  that  the 
mortahty  from  cholera  infantum,  whooping  cough  and  scarlet 
fever  was  also  very  much  increased  during  this  year.  In  fact,  the 
mortahty  rate  for  cholera  infantum,  which  for  1907,  1908  and 
1909  had  averaged  twenty-seven,  in  1910  jumped  up  to  one 
hundred  and  six.  The  suggestion  is,  of  course,  that  a  number  of 
these  cases  of  death  reported  as  cholera  infantum  may  have  been 
and  probably  were  typical  cases  of  infantile  paralysis  of  the 
gastro -intestinal  type. 

As  far  as  therapeutics  are  concerned  little  new  has  been  learned 
through  the  Massachusetts  investigations.  Osgood  and  Lucas, 
to  be  sure,  made  some  experiments  upon  monkeys,  with  a  cer- 
tain number  of  specific  sera  and  vaccines,  to  see  whether  the 
specific  immunity  brought  about  by  these  sera  and  vaccines 
might  not  give  a  partial  immunity  to  infantile  paralysis.  The 
results,  however,  were  negative.  Hexamethylenamin  has  been 
recommended  to  the  profession  of  Massachusetts  strongly  as  a 
possible  prophylactic  against  the  disease,  and  quite  generally 
employed. 

A  unique  experiment  with  this  drug  was  carried  out  at  a  cer- 
tain boys'  school  in  our  state,  an  experiment  which  may  be 
worthy  of  repetition  by  others  under  similar  circumstances.  At 
the  opening  of  this  school  in  the  fall  a  boy  arrived  who  had  been 
in  Europe  and  was  in  intimate  contact  with  at  least  twenty-five 
of  his  fellow  pupils  for  a  period  extending  over  ten  days  or  two 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  357 

weeks.  He  then  developed  infantile  paralysis,  much  to  the  dis- 
comfort of  the  school  authorities.  The  boy  was  isolated  imme- 
diately, and  all  the  other  pupils  given  hexamethylenamin  in  their 
drinking  water.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  effect  of  this 
medication  no  other  cases  developed  in  this  school.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  had  one  or  two  other  similar  experiences  where 
cases  in  prodromal  stages  have  been  in  intimate  contact  with 
school  children  and  where  no  secondary  cases  have  occurred,  even 
though  hexamethylenamin  was  not  administered,  —  facts  which 
make  us  very  conservative  in  estimating  the  effect  of  simple 
contact  in  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

As  regards  prognosis,  the  experience  in  Massachusetts  has 
shown  this  to  be  much  better  than  was  previously  supposed.  In 
fact,  the  following  conclusions  seem  justified:  "In  anterior 
poKomyehtis  complete  recovery  or  function  recovery  occurs  in 
over  25  per  cent  of  cases  examined  at  the  end  of  four  years. 
Atrophy  may  exist  without  impairment  of  function.  In  about 
one-half  of  the  recovered  cases  the  onset  was  mild.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  paralysis  in  such  recovered  cases  was  not  essentially 
different  from  that  in  cases  which  do  not  recover.  Recovery  in 
many  instances  required  months  and  in  several  cases  from  one  to 
three  years." 

Another  interesting  possibility  is  that  herpes  zoster  may  be  a 
form  of  anterior  poliomyehtis,  due  to  an  unusual  localization  of 
the  virus.  Coincidence  of  this  disease  with  epidemics  of  infantile 
paralysis  has  been  noted,  especially  in  recent  years,  by  English 
observers.  In  the  experience  in  Massachusetts  certain  striking 
cases  have  occurred.  For  instance,  in  191 2  there  has  occurred, 
coincidently,  in  the  same  individual,  anterior  poliomyehtis  and 
herpes  zoster.  Furthermore,  we  have  a  history,  also,  of  anterior 
poliomyehtis  in  the  child  at  the  same  time  with  herpes  zoster 
in  the  father.  Pathologists  maintain  that  the  changes  occurring 
in  the  posterior  ganglia  of  the  spinal  cord  in  herpes  zoster  resemble 
almost  exactly  those  found  in  poliomyehtis  in  the  anterior  horns 
of  the  cord,  and  the  hypothesis  that  the  two  diseases  are  due 
to  the  same  virus  with  different  localizations  is  certainly  one 
worthy  of  further  investigation. 


358  STATE  SANITATION 

Finally,  the  experience  of  Massachusetts  has  not  been  such  as  to 
support  the  theory  that  infantile  paralysis  is  spread  from  person 
to  person  by  direct  or  indirect  contact.  The  rural  preponderance 
of  the  disease,  the  comparative  immunity  of  children  confined  in 
institutions  and  hospitals,  the  summer  incidence,  the  failure  of 
the  disease  to  find  its  greatest  incidence  in  cities  and  localities 
where  density  of  population  and  overcrowding  are  most  marked, 
and  the  irregular  distribution  have  all  militated  against  the  accept- 
ance of  such  a  theory.  In  fact,  the  feehng  among  Massachusetts 
observers  has  been  strong  for  some  time  that  the  epidemiology 
of  this  disease  was  best  explained  through  the  intermediate 
action  of  some  biting  insect,  and  evidence  in  support  of  this 
theory  will  be  presented  by  Professor  Milton  J.  Rosenau  of 
Harvard  University.    (See  below.) 

Some  Experimental  Observations  upon  Monkeys  Concern- 
ing THE  Transmission  of  Poliomyelitis  through 
THE  Agency  of  Stomoxys  Calcitrans  ^ 

The  work  we  are  about  to  report  was  done  for,  and  under,  the 
auspices  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts. 

We  should  like  to  have  it  distinctly  understood,  and  therefore 
emphasize  the  fact  right  in  the  beginning,  that  this  announce- 
ment is  to  be  considered  as  a  preliminary  report,  for  the  work  is 
still  in  progress.  Certain  results  have  been  obtained  which  it 
seems  advisable  to  announce  at  this  juncture.  In  taking  this 
action  in  announcing  work  before  it  is  completed  we  have  not 
assumed  the  sole  responsibihty,  but  have  taken  counsel  with 
older  and  wiser  heads,  friends  for  whose  judgment  we  have  the 
highest  regard. 

When  we  first  took  up  the  study  of  this  disease  —  infantile 
paralysis  ■ —  with  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts, 
we  considered  all  possible  modes  of  transference  of  the  virus  from 
the  sick  to  the  well,  but  gradually  focused  our  attention  upon  the 

^  A  preliminary  note  by  M.  J.  Rosenau,  Professor  Preventive  Medicine  and 
Hygiene,  Harvard  Medical  School,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  Charles  T.  Brues,  Instructor 
in  Economic  Entomology,  Bussey  Institution  of  Harvard  University.  Remarks 
made  by  Professor  Rosenau  in  the  discussion  of  the  previous  paper. 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  359 

fact  that  the  disease  seemed  to  be  spread  rather  directly  from 
person  to  person.  In  other  words,  the  disease  appeared  to  us  at 
first  blush  to  be  a  "  contagious  "  disease,  but  one  in  which  mild  or 
abortive  cases,  missed  cases,  and  third  persons  probably  played 
an  important  role  in  the  transfer  of  the  infection.  We  were 
probably  prejudiced  in  favor  of  this  viewpoint  on  account  of  the 
splendid  work  of  Wickman,  whose  publications  we  studied  with 
care.  We  were  further  influenced  to  regard  pohomyelitis  as  a 
"  contagious  "  disease  owing  to  the  views  of  Flexner,  who  com- 
pared it  to  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  and  who  regarded 
that  it  spread  in  the  light  of  a  contact  infection  through  the  secre- 
tions from  the  mouth  and  nose.  The  analogy  to  meningitis  was  a 
very  close  one,  and  the  experimental  fact  that  the  virus  could  be 
demonstrated  in  the  nasal  mucosa  of  monkeys  (Osgood,  Lucas 
and  others)  seems  to  corroborate  the  suspicion  that  we  are  in  fact 
dealing  with  an  infection  spread  very  much  as  cerebro-spinal 
meningitis  is  spread. 

If  these  assumptions  were  correct  then  the  virus  should  be 
demonstrable  in  the  secretions  from  the  nose  and  throat.  Rose- 
nau,  Sheppard,  and  Amoss  therefore  injected  eighteen  monkeys 
with  the  nasal  and  buccal  secretions  obtained  from  eighteen  per- 
sons who  were  suffering  with  the  disease  at  the  time,  or  in  the 
stage  of  convalescence,  or  from  persons  suspected  of  acting  as 
carriers.  These  results  were  negative.  At  the  same  time  Straus 
of  New  York  had  a  series  of  negative  results,  and  other  American 
workers  were  also  unable  to  find  the  virus  where  we  assumed  it 
should  be.  These  negative  results  seemed  to  us  to  have  positive 
significance,  and  was  the  first  definite  indication  that  we  were 
upon  the  wrong  trail. 

That  pohomyelitis  is  not  a  "  contagious  "  disease  was  clearly 
brought  out  by  Dr.  Richardson  and  other  observers  who  have 
spoken  this  morning,  all  of  whom  have  emphasized  the  point  that 
the  disease  shows  httle  or  no  tendency  to  spread  in  crowded 
districts,  in  schools,  in  institutions,  in  asylums,  in  camps  and  in 
other  places  where  one  would  expect  a  disease  spread  by  contact 
through  secretions  of  the  mouth  and  nose  to  spread  more  readily. 
We  have  in  mind  the  fact  that  many  cases  of  the  disease  have 


360  STATE  SANITATION 

been  brought  into  asylums  and  hospitals  throughout  the  State  of 
Massachusetts,  in  all  stages  of  the  infection;  yet  secondary 
cases  have  not  occurred  under  such  circumstances.  On  the  con- 
trary the  disease  prevailed  in  Massachusetts  more  particularly  in 
rural  and  country  districts  sparsely  settled. 

Another  reason  that  led  us  away  from  the  theory  of  contacts, 
and  made  us  believe  that  we  were  not  dealing  with  a  contagious 
disease  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  term,  was  the  close  analogy 
between  rabies  and  poliomyelitis.  All  investigators  in  labora- 
tories who  have  worked  with  these  two  viruses  have  been  struck 
with  the  similarity  between  rabies  and  poliomyelitis.  Both 
viruses  are  diffused  widely  throughout  the  body,  both  exist  in 
special  concentration  in  the  central  nervous  system,  both  are 
filterable,  etc.  Rabies  being  a  wound  infection  made  us  con- 
jecture that  poliomyelitis  may  also  be  similarly  transmitted. 

Our  experience  with  yellow  fever,  perhaps  more  than  anything 
else,  influenced  us  concerning  the  probable  mode  of  transmission 
of  poliomyelitis.  It  had  been  the  privilege  of  one  of  us  to  work 
with  yellow  fever  both  before  and  after  the  mosquito  days,  and 
many  analogies  came  to  mind  which  made  us  beheve  that 
poliomyelitis  also  was  not  a  contagious  disease. 

All  the  various  reasons  that  influenced  us  in  turning  from  con- 
tagion to  some  other  mode  of  transference  need  not  engage  our 
attention  now,  for  the  history  of  this  part  of  the  work  has  been 
ably  and  accurately  given  by  Dr.  Richardson  in  the  paper  which 
he  has  just  read.  In  justice  to  Dr.  Richardson  we  desire  to 
state  that  all  the  essential  conclusions  of  his  paper  were  ar- 
rived at  before  he  knew  of  the  results  in  the  laboratory  with  the 
monkeys. 

The  work  which  we  now  briefly  desire  to  report  consists  in 
exposing  monkeys  during  all  stages  of  the  disease  to  the  bites  of 
Stomoxys  calcitrans.  The  monkeys  were  infected  in  the  usual 
way  by  bringing  an  emulsion  of  a  known  virus  obtained  from 
human  sources  in  direct  association  with  the  central  nervous 
system.  After  the  flies  had  had  abundant  opportunity  to  bite 
these  infected  monkeys  during  the  various  stages  of  the  disease, 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  361 

including  the  period  of  incubation,  healthy  monkeys  were  then 
exposed  to  the  bites  of  these  same  flies.  Of  twelve  healthy 
monkeys  indications  of  the  disease  have  been  obtained  in  six, 
three  of  them  in  a  virulent  form,  resulting  in  death,  the  other 
three  with  transient  tremblings,  partial  paralysis,  diarrhoea  and 
recovery.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  several  of  the  monkeys 
had  diarrhoea,  therein  the  disease  resembles  the  human  disease 
more  closely  than  when  monkeys  are  simply  inoculated  with  the 
virus  into  the  brain,  for  gastro-intestinal  upsets  in  children  are 
frequently  associated  with  infantile  paralysis. 

In  these  experiments  it  is  important,  we  think,  to  use  the  proper 
technic  in  order  to  obtain  successful  results.  The  flies  should  be 
handled  as  little  as  possible.  It  is  much  better  to  handle  the 
monkeys  and  leave  the  flies  alone.  In  our  experiment  the  flies 
were  caught  in  nature,  some  of  them  were  bred,  placed  in  a  large 
cage  about  six  feet  long  by  five  or  six  feet  wide,  and  some  three 
or  four  feet  high.  The  monkeys  are  stretched  out  at  full  length 
and  wrapped  in  chicken  wire.  In  this  way  they  can  be  placed  in 
in  the  cage  and  the  flies  have  full  opportunity  to  bite.  The  flies 
appear  to  need  a  feed  of  blood  about  every  day  or  two.  They 
sometimes  visit  water  which  is  kept  in  the  cage,  but  apparently 
cannot  be  induced  to  eat  any  other  food  than  the  blood.  At 
least,  in  our  experiments,  bananas,  fruits,  and  other  substances 
exposed  apparently  were  little  visited  by  the  flies.  Furthermore, 
in  our  experiments  a  very  large  number  of  flies  were  used. 

In  conclusion  we  desire  simply  to  summarize  the  fact  that  we 
have  apparently  transferred  the  virus  of  poliomyelitis  from 
monkey  to  monkey  through  the  bite  of  the  stable  fly,  Stomoxys 
calcitrans.  We  would  like  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  this  does 
not  appear  to  be  simply  a  mechanical  transference,  but  rather  a 
biological  one,  requiring  a  period  of  extrinsic  incubation  in  the 
intermediate  host. 

What  conclusions  can  we  draw  from  these  facts  ?  At  present 
it  seems  to  us  we  would  not  be  justified  in  drawing  any  conclusion 
—  the  significance  of  the  facts  if  confirmed  is  self-evident. 


362  STATE  SANITATION 

Transmission  of  Poliomyelitis  by  Means  of  the  Stable  Fly 
(Stomoxys  Calcitrans)  ^ 

As  a  result  of  the  thorough  epidemiologic  studies  of  poliomye- 
litis conducted  by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  from 
1907  to  191 2,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Mark  W.  Richardson, 
secretary  of  the  board,  evidence  was  collected  which  led  the 
investigators  to  strongly  suspect  that  the  common  stable  fly 
{Stomoxys  calcitrans)  played  an  important  part  in  the  spread  of 
this  disease. 

At  the  joint  session  of  sections  I  and  V  of  the  Fifteenth  Inter- 
national Congress  on  Hygiene  and  Demography  in  Washington, 
September  26,  1912,  Dr.  Milton  J.  Rosenau,  of  the  Harvard 
Medical  School,  who  has  been  working  in  conjunction  with  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  announced  the  result  of  an 
experiment  which  seemed  to  confirm  most  strikingly  the  inferences 
drawn  from  the  epidemiologic  work  above  mentioned. 

Dr.  Rosenau  stated  that  he  had  infected  several  monkeys  with 
poHomyelitis  by  intracerebral  inoculation,  exposed  them  daily  — 
from  the  time  of  inoculation  till  death  —  to  the  bites  of  several 
hundred  Stomoxys,  at  the  same  time  exposing  twelve  fresh  mon- 
keys to  the  bites  of  the  same  flies.  At  the  time  the  announce- 
ment was  made  six  of  these  twelve  monkeys  were  reported  as 
having  developed  symptoms  characteristic  of  poliomyeHtis,  i.  e., 
illness  followed  by  more  or  less  extensive  paralysis.  Of  these  six 
monkeys,  two  had  died,  three  were  paralyzed  at  that  time,  and 
one  recovered  after  a  brief  illness.  In  the  cord  of  one  of  the 
monkeys  that  had  died  were  found  the  characteristic  lesions  of 
poHomyeHtis,  that  is,  perivascular  infiltration  and  destruction  of 
the  motor  cells  of  the  anterior  cornu.  The  cord  of  the  other 
monkey  was  reported  to  have  shown  changes  less  characteristic 
of  poliomyelitis,  namely,  degenerations  of  the  motor  cells  without 
perivascular  infiltration. 

At  the  time  of  announcement  a  suffi.cient  interval  had  not 
elapsed  to  determine  the  result  of  the  attempt  to  transmit  the 

^  By  John  F.  Anderson,  Director  Hygienic  Laboratory,  and  Wade  H.  Frost, 
Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  United  States  Public  Health  Service.  Reprinted  from 
Pubhc  Health  Reports,  Washington,  D.  C,  October  25,  191 2. 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  363 

infection  to  other  monkeys  by  inoculation  with  the  cord  of  one  of 
the  two  that  had  died. 

This  experiment,  giving  an  altogether  new  direction  to  the 
experimental  study  of  poliomyelitis,  appeared  of  sufficient 
importance  to  warrant  an  immediate  attempt  at  confirmation. 

In  the  experiment  below  reported  it  has  been  our  object  to 
repeat,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  conditions  of  that  reported  by 
Dr.  Rosenau,  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  assistance  and 
advice  in  the  details  of  the  experiment. 

On  October  3,  rhesus  No.  242  was  inoculated  intracerebrally 
with  an  emulsion  of  the  cord  of  a  monkey  which  had  died  of 
poliomyehtis.  The  virus  used  is  a  strain  originally  obtained 
from  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical  Research,  kept  at  the 
hygienic  laboratory  for  nearly  two  years,  during  which  time  it 
has  been  passed  through  a  large  series  of  monkeys. 

Two  hours  after  inoculation  the  infected  monkey  was  exposed 
to  the  bites  of  about  three  hundred  Stomoxys  recently  collected  in 
Washington.  Thereafter  until  death,  on  October  8,  this  animal 
was  exposed  daily  for  about  two  hours  to  the  bites  of  the  same 
flies,  plus  additional  fresh  Stomoxys  added  from  time  to  time  as 
caught.  This  monkey  (No.  242)  developed  characteristic  com- 
plete paralysis  on  the  afternoon  of  October  7  and  died  at  2  a.m. 
October  8. 

Another  monkey  (rhesus  No.  246),  similarly  inoculated  on 
October  5,  was  then  exposed  daily  to  the  bites  of  the  same  flies, 
beginning  October  7.  This  monkey  developed  paralysis  on  the 
morning  of  October  9,  soon  becoming  completely  paralyzed  and 
d5dng  that  afternoon. 

Thus,  from  October  4  to  October  9,  inclusive,  the  flies  used  had 
access  to  two  monkeys  inoculated  with  poliomyehtis,  first,  rhesus 
No.  242,  then  rhesus  No.  246.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  incuba- 
tion period  in  both  these  monkeys  was  very  short  —  four  days 
from  inoculation  to  the  development  of  paralysis. 

Beginning  October  4,  two  fresh  monkeys  (rhesus  No.  243  and 
Java  No.  241)  were  exposed  daily  for  about  two  hours  to  the  bites 
of  these  same  flies;  and  beginning  October  5,  a  third  fresh 
monkey  (rhesus  No.  244)  was  similarly  exposed.    All  three  of 


364  STATE  SANITATION 

these  animals  subsequently  developed  symptoms  of  poliomyelitis, 
as  follows:  — 

Java  No.  241  was  found  completely  paralyzed  on  the  morning 
of  October  1 2  and  died  a  few  hours  later.  At  autopsy  tubercles 
were  found  in  the  lungs,  liver,  and  spleen. 

Rhesus  No.  244  showed  paralysis  of  the  hind  legs  on  the  same 
day  (October  12),  but  was,  nevertheless,  exposed  again  to  the 
bites  of  the  Stomoxys  from  10  a.m.  till  2  p.m.  At  3  p.m.  the 
animal,  being  almost  completely  paralyzed,  was  chloroformed. 
At  autopsy  tubercles  were  found  in  the  lungs,  liver  and  spleen, 
but  apparently  not  sufficient  to  have  been  the  cause  of  death. 

Rhesus  No.  243,  which  had  appeared  well  on  the  morning  of 
October  13,  was  found  at  4  o'clock  that  afternoon  to  have  a 
partial  paralysis  of  the  right  hind  leg.  The  following  morning 
the  hind  legs  and  right  fore  leg  were  almost  completely  paralyzed. 
By  3.30  P.M.  the  neck  also  was  paralyzed  and  the  intercostal 
muscles  somewhat  affected.  The  animal  was  then  chloroformed. 
At  autopsy  the  internal  organs  appeared  normal,  except  the  spinal 
cord,  which  was  edematous,  the  gray  matter  being  congested. 
Sections  of  the  cord,  histologically  examined,  showed  typical 
well-marked  lesions  of  poliomyelitis;  perivascular  round-cell 
infiltration;  foci  of  dense  infiltration  in  the  gray  matter  of  the 
anterior  horn;  and  destruction  of  some  of  the  motor  neurons. 

The  histologic  examination  of  the  cords  of  monkeys  Nos.  241 
and  244  has  not  yet  been  completed,  but  it  is  believed,  on  the 
clinical  evidence,  that  they  died  of  poliomyelitis. 

To  summarize:  three  monkeys  exposed  daily  to  the  bites  of 
several  hundred  Stomoxys,  which  at  the  same  time  were  allowed 
daily  to  bite  two  intracerebrally  inoculated  monkeys,  developed 
quite  typical  symptoms  of  poliomyelitis  eight,  seven  and  nine 
days,  respectively,  from  the  date  of  their  first  exposure. 

In  order  to  confirm  the  diagnosis  of  poliomyelitis  in  rhesus  No. 
243,  one  cubic  centimeter  of  an  emulsion  of  the  cord  of  this 
monkey  was  injected  intracerebrally  on  October  14  into  a  healthy 
monkey  (rhesus  No.  250).  This  animal  recovered  promptly 
from  the  operation  and  remained  apparently  quite  well  till  the 
morning  of  October  17,  when  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  right  fore 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS  365 

leg  was  noted,  progressing  somewhat  during  the  day.  On  the 
morning  of  October  18  both  fore  legs  were  completely  paralyzed 
and  the  hind  legs  weak.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  the 
right  hind  leg  was  completely  paralyzed,  the  left  very  weak,  and 
the  neck  paralyzed.  The  monkey  died  at  10.30  p.m.  and  was 
immediately  placed  on  ice  until  autopsy  could  be  made  at  9  a.m., 
October  19. 

At  the  autopsy  there  was  found  some  congestion  of  the  lower 
lobe  of  both  lungs,  most  marked  on  the  left  side,  upon  which  the 
animal  had  been  lying  after  paralysis  developed.  The  meninges 
of  the  cord  were  markedly  congested.  On  section,  the  cord 
appeared  edematous,  and  the  gray  matter  congested,  showing 
minute  hemorrhages.  The  site  of  inoculation  appeared  normal 
except  for  a  slight  clot.  Cultures  from  this  site  have  shown  no 
growth.    The  other  organs  were  normal  in  appearance. 

Histologic  examination  of  the  cord  showed  lesions  characteristic 
of  poliomyelitis,  intense  congestion  and  perivascular  infiltration, 
foci  of  round-cell  infiltration  here  and  there  in  the  gray  matter, 
destruction  of  the  cells  of  the  anterior  comu,  and  small  hemor- 
rhages in  the  anterior  and  posterior  cornu. 

Conclusion 

These  results,  in  confirmation  of  those  announced  by  Dr. 
Rosenau,  would  seem  to  demonstrate  conclusively  that  poliomye- 
litis may  be  transmitted  to  monkeys  through  the  agency  of  the 
stable  fly  {Stomoxys  calcitrans) . 

It  remains  for  further  work  to  decide  whether  this  is  the  usual 
or  the  only  method  of  transmission  in  nature. 


XXXIV 

FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION  OF  THE  MASSACHU- 
SETTS STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH 

By  Hermann  C.  Lythgoe 

[This  is  the  most  recent  summary  of  the  work  of  the  Food  and  Drug  Department 
and  shows  the  improvements  which  have  resulted  from  the  constant  supervision  by 
the  State  Board  of  Health.    Public  Health  Bulletin,  1914,  p.  262.  —  G.  C.  W.] 

For  thirty-one  consecutive  years  the  State  Board  of  Health  has 
enforced  the  laws  relating  to  the  sale  of  adulterated  food  and 
drugs,  which  has  resulted  in  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the 
food  and  drug  supply  of  the  state.  The  prevaiHng  popular 
opinion  is  that  the  food  law  is  something  new,  and  that  our  foods 
are  adulterated  in  such  a  manner  and  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
American  public  is  in  great  danger  of  degeneration  and  exter- 
mination. These  views  are  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
federal  food  law,  which  is  but  seven  years  old,  has  been  exten- 
sively advertised,  the  reports  of  the  prosecutions  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  the  disposition  of  decomposed  samples 
being  published  in  a  somewhat  sensational  manner  in  the  news- 
papers. Furthermore,  many  sensational  and  untrue  statements 
about  our  food  supply  have  been  published  in  papers  and  maga- 
zines. During  the  period  from  January  i,  1907,  to  December  31, 
191 2,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  reported  the  completion 
of  2,391  prosecutions  under  the  United  States  food  and  drug  act 
of  1906,  and  during  the  same  period  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Health  has  made  1,601  prosecutions  for  violations  of 
the  Massachusetts  food  laws,  —  nearly  two-thirds  as  many  as  the 
national  authorities  have  made.  When  one  considers  that  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  operated  during  this 
time  the  general  laboratory  in  Washington  and  twenty-one 
branch  laboratories,  many  of  which  were  larger  than  the  food 
laboratory  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  it  is  surprising  that  the 
number  of  prosecutions  carried  on  by  the  state  is  so  large. 

366 


FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION  367 

State  food  laws  deal  with  sales  made  within  the  state,  and  the 
national  law  deals  with  sales  made  between  the  states;  both  laws 
are  independent  of  each  other.  The  New  Hampshire  law  cannot 
prevent  the  manufacturer  in  that  state  from  shipping  adulterated 
food  into  Massachusetts,  and  the  United  States  law  cannot 
easily  convict  a  person  who  ships  to  himself  or  to  his  partner 
although  goods  so  shipped  may  be  subject  to  seizure  and  con- 
fiscation; but  under  the  Massachusetts  law  the  person  selling 
such  food  in  this  state  can  be  prosecuted.  This  illustration  shows 
the  vital  necessity  of  state  laws,  which,  as  a  rule,  owing  to  local 
conditions,  cannot  be  in  uniformity  with  the  national  law. 
Shortly  after  the  passage  of  the  United  States  law  many  states 
enacted  a  law  modeled  upon  it  almost  verbatim,  yet  today  hardly 
a  state  possesses  a  law  uniform  with  the  national  law,  owing  to 
the  necessary  changes  made  by  the  different  states. 

There  was  published  in  the  report  for  191 2  a  chart^  show- 
ing the  variation  in  adulteration  of  samples  of  milk,  foods, 
exclusive  of  milk,  spices  and  drugs,  examined  by  the  Board  dur- 
ing thirty  years.  A  chart  of  this  nature  naturally  would  give 
a  false  impression  of  the  amount  of  adulterated  matter  upon  the 
market,  owing  to  the  fact  that  particular  attention  was  paid  to 
the  collection  and  examination  of  those  substances  which  experi- 
ence has  shown  to  be  most  liable  to  adulteration.  Furthermore, 
large  numbers  of  samples  are  collected  from  suspected  persons, 
which  practice  has  a  tendency  to  increase  above  the  normal  the 
ratio  of  adulteration  of  the  samples  examined.  This  chart  shows 
the  value  of  inspection,  however,  for  one  can  readily  perceive 
what  would  happen  if  inspection  were  to  cease. 

The  actual  value  of  the  work  of  the  department  in  suppressing 
adulteration  can  be  shown  by  the  statistics  of  those  classes  of 
food  which  have  been  examined  continuously  during  a  period  of 
years  by  the  same  methods  of  analysis.  For  this  purpose  the 
statistics  of  honey,  cream  of  tartar,  coffee,  molasses,  and  spices 
have  been  chosen.  Honey,  cream  of  tartar,  and  spices  have  been 
examined  for  thirty-one  years.  No  adulterated  samples  of  spice 
and  honey  have  been  obtained  in  eight  years,  and  of  cream  of 
tartar  during  three  years.    The  largest  amount  of  adulterated 

1  This  chart  is  not  reproduced. 


368  STATE  SANITATION 

spices  was  obtained  in  1883,  when  two- thirds  of  the  samples  were 
adulterated.  After  five  years  the  adulteration  of  spices  was 
reduced  to  less  than  one-fifth,  and  since  1908  it  has  been  nil.  The 
large  majority  of  the  adulterated  samples  of  spices  were  manu- 
factured outside  this  state,  and  in  such  cases  warning  letters  were 
sent  to  the  dealers,  —  prosecution  being  resorted  to  only  when  the 
dealers  did  not  heed  the  warning.  In  the  collection  of  such  food 
as  spices  the  inspectors  soon  became  acquainted  with  the  reliable 
brands,  and  from  dealers  carrying  such  goods  no  samples  were 
taken. 

During  1910  four  samples  of  cream  of  tartar  were  reported 
adulterated,  of  which  three  were  sold  as  cream  of  tartar  substitutes 
without  any  statement  of  the  per  cent  of  ingredients,  and  have 
not  been  included  in  the  chart.  The  other  sample  is  included  in 
the  chart,  and  was  in  a  can,  which,  judging  from  its  appearance, 
may  have  been  on  the  shelf  of  the  dealer  for  a  number  of  years. 

Coffee  has  been  examined  continuously  since  1890,  and  the 
highest  amount  of  adulteration  (45  per  cent)  occurred  in  1890. 
For  six  years  no  sales  of  adulterated  coffee  have  been  obtained 
when  coffee  was  asked  for.  A  number  of  samples  of  compound 
coffee  have  been  obtained,  but  in  all  these  cases  compound  coffee 
has  been  asked  for,  and  the  packages  have  been  labeled  "  com- 
pound coffee  ";  but  in  many  instances  the  per  cent  of  the  ingre- 
dients, as  required  by  law,  have  not  been  stated  upon  the  package. 
These  sales  of  compound  coffee  are  not  included  in  the  chart. 

Molasses  has  been  examined  for  the  presence  of  glucose  since 
1887.  Previous  to  that  time  the  examination  had  been  confined 
to  the  detection  of  tin  salts  used  in  clarifying  and  decolorizing 
dark,  thick  molasses.  Since  1907  no  illegal  sales  of  molasses 
containing  glucose  have  been  obtained  in  this  state  by  our 
inspectors. 

Preserved  Foods 

Since  1904  certain  classes  of  food  have  been  systematically 
examined  for  preservatives,  and  the  results  of  these  examinations 
are  shown  in  the  chart.  The  percentage  of  adulterated  samples 
does  not  show  the  extent  of  the  use  of  preservatives  in  these  foods, 


FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION  369 

but  shows  the  per  cent  of  samples  containing  these  substances 
when  sold  without  the  necessary  label  stating  the  name  and  per 
cent  of  the  added  preservatives.  Certain  classes  of  food,  such  as 
hamburg  steak  and  sweet  cider,  invariably  contain  antiseptics, 
unless  the  article  is  prepared  in  the  presence  of  the  customer.  In 
fact,  it  would  be  impossible  to  sell  in  a  grocery  store  sweet  cider 
free  from  preservatives  unless  the  cider  was  sterilized  and  bottled 
in  that  condition,  as  the  presence  of  alcohol  would  in  one  or  two 
days  become  sufficient  to  render  the  dealer  liable  under  the  hquor 
law  for  selling  an  intoxicating  beverage  without  a  Hcense.  The 
use  of  a  preservative  in  hamburg  steak  is  principally  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  meat  from  becoming  dark  upon  standing. 
Sodium  sulphite  is  used  for  this  purpose  in  amounts  from  0.5  to 
I  per  cent,  although  occasionally  samples  have  been  found  con- 
taining as  much  as  2  per  cent.  Meat  treated  with  this  substance 
will  retain  its  bright  red  color  until  the  antiseptic  is  destroyed. 
Recently  sodium  benzoate  has  been  to  some  extent  substituted 
for  sodium  sulphite  in  this  article  of  food.  With  the  exception  of 
these  two  substances  the  use  of  antiseptics  in  food  is  decHning. 
In  the  foods  in  which  the  presence  of  antiseptics  was  formerly  the 
rule,  such  as  sausages,  clams,  oysters,  and  beer,  these  substances 
are  now  very  rarely  found,  and  the  use  of  preservatives  is  dimin- 
ishing in  jams,  ketchup,  canned  and  bottled  fruit  products,  in 
which  antiseptics  are  unnecessary  for  commercial  preservation. 
The  use  of  antiseptics  in  milk  has  practically  ceased.  Since  1908 
but  two  samples  of  preserved  milk  have  been  found  in  this  labo- 
ratory, one  sample  during  191 2  and  one  during  19 13,  both  of  which 
contained  formaldehyde. 

Drugs 

Drugs  must  conform  to  certain  standards  laid  down  in  books  on 
materia  medica,  one  of  which,  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia, 
is  specifically  mentioned  in  the  statutes.  If  a  sample  of  drug  is 
deficient  to  the  standard,  although  its  deficiency  is  too  sHght  to 
substantiate  a  prosecution  in  court,  the  records  of  the  department 
must  show  it  to  be  adulterated.  For  this  reason  drugs  would 
naturally  show  a  higher  ratio  of  adulteration  than  foods  which, 


370  STATE  SANITATION 

with  the  exception  of  milk  and  vinegar,  need  not  conform  with 
specific  standards,  but  this  does  not  account  for  the  excessive 
adulteration  found  in  drugs,  the  only  explanation  of  which  would 
be  fraud,  incompetency  or  carelessness.  It  is  of  course  mani- 
festly impossible  to  expect  all  drugs  prepared  by  the  retail  dealers 
to  be  exactly  standard,  and  a  reasonable  allowance  must  be  made 
for  possible  errors  in  manufacture.  For  example,  spirit  of  pepper- 
mint should  contain  lo  per  cent  by  volume  of  peppermint  oil. 
If  two  samples  were  examined  and  found  to  contain  9.7  per  cent 
and  5  per  cent  of  peppermint  oil,  respectively,  they  must  both  be 
classed  as  adulterated,  although  the  former  is  for  all  practical 
purposes  pure,  and  the  latter  is  adulterated  to  an  extent  of  50  per 
cent.  One  of  these  samples  should  be  the  subject  of  a  prosecu- 
tion, and  the  other  is  not  even  poor  enough  to  merit  the  sending 
of  a  warning  letter  to  the  dealer  from  whom  it  was  obtained.  It 
has  been  the  practice  in  this  state  to  obtain  for  analysis  a  number 
of  drugs  which  are  prepared  by  the  retail  druggist,  experience  hav- 
ing shown  that  the  largest  amount  of  fraudulent  adulteration  and 
substitution  is  practiced  by  the  small  dealers.  Judging  from  the 
rapidity  of  the  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  drugs  examined 
it  would  appear  as  if  the  druggists  watch  the  bulletins  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health  to  find  out  what  particular  drugs  are  being 
examined,  because  after  the  publication  of  the  results  of  the  first 
prosecution  of  a  drug,  the  character  of  which  has  been  but  recently 
investigated,  the  sale  of  pure  and  full-strength  samples  of  this 
particular  drug  increases  with  great  rapidity.  For  this  reason 
changes  in  the  character  of  drugs  examined  are  necessary,  and 
there  has  been  no  one  variety  of  drug  that  has  been  examined 
continuously  since  the  department  has  been  organized;  con- 
sequently, a  drug  chart  similar  to  that  of  foods  could  not  be 
prepared. 

Tincture  of  iodine  has  been  examined  for  a  longer  period  than 
any  other  drug,  and  since  1904  the  ratio  of  adulteration  has  been 
brought  down  from  90  to  15  per  cent.  Since  1908  from  7  to  15 
per  cent  of  the  samples  contained  less  than  the  required  seven 
grams  of  iodine  per  hundred  cubic  centimeters.  Notwithstanding 
this,  during  the  same  period  the  average  sample  contained  from 


FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION  371 

96  to  99  per  cent  and  the  average  adulterated  sample  contained 
from  77  to  84  per  cent  of  the  required  amount  of  iodine.  During 
the  years  1898-1904  from  81  to  84  per  cent  of  the  samples  were 
below  the  standard,  the  average  bad  sample  containing  from  63 
to  75  per  cent  and  the  average  of  all  samples  containing  from  76 
to  88  per  cent  of  the  required  amount  of  iodine.  The  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  this  drug  appears  to  have  been  extended 
to  the  adulterated  samples,  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  less  num- 
ber of  the  highly  deficient  and  a  proportionately  greater  number 
of  the  slightly  deficient  samples.  Similar  conditions  exist  in  the 
statistics  of  the  other  pharmacopoeial  preparations  Hsted  in  the 
chart. 

The  glycerine  statistics  are  of  unusual  interest.  During  1899 
it  was  found  that  the  glycerine  on  the  market  contained  con- 
siderable arsenic,  and  as  nearly  all  of  this  drug  came  from  outside 
the  state,  notification  rather  than  prosecution  (of  which  latter 
there  was  but  one)  was  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  purifying 
the  drug.  The  increase  in  adulteration  during  the  second  year  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  examination  for  arsenic  in  1899  was 
begun  in  the  middle  of  the  year  and  the  samples  not  examined  for 
arsenic  were  reported  as  good,  which  lowered  the  ratio  of  adul- 
teration for  the  year.  At  that  time  the  United  States  Pharma- 
copoeia did  not  specify  that  glycerine  should  be  free  from  arsenic, 
and  the  fact  that  the  Massachusetts  market  was  practically 
cleared  of  the  arsenical  preparation  before  the  publication  of  the 
1900  Pharmacopoeia  speaks  well  both  for  the  work  of  the  depart- 
ment and  of  the  co-operation  of  the  manufacturers  in  the  country, 
who  changed  their  process  of  manufacture  so  that  the  phar- 
macopoeial glycerine  was  made  arsenic  free. 

The  proprietary  medicine  law  was  enacted  in  1906,  but  was 
written  in  such  a  manner  that  except  in  those  portions  relating  to 
cocaine  it  was  practically  useless.  This  law  was  amended  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  in  1907  and  went  into  effect  in  1908.  For 
these  reasons  the  most  attention  was  given  during  1906  and  1907 
to  the  preparations  in  which  cocaine  might  be  used,  and  of  eighty- 
seven  samples  obtained  in  1906,  seventy-eight  were  suspected  of 
containing  cocaine,  in  eighteen  of  which  the  drug  was  present. 


372 


STATE  SANITATION 


In  1907  no  collections  were  made  of  those  medicines  shown  by  the 
previous  year's  work  to  contain  no  objectional  substances,  and 
a  vigorous  campaign  was  carried  on  against  the  sale  of  medicine 
known  to  contain  cocaine.  This  was  continued  during  1908  and 
1909,  the  result  of  which  is  that  it  is  now  almost  impossible  to 
purchase  cocaine  in  a  drug  store  in  this  state  without  a  prescrip- 
tion from  a  physician;    and,   furthermore,  proprietary  drugs 

Table  60 
Proprietary  Medicines 


Samples 
found 
Good 

Number  of  Samples  containing  — 

Year 

Cocaine 

Morphine 

Acetan- 
ilide 

Alcohol 

Chloro- 
form 

Total 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

I913 

69 
84 
165 
73 
43 
SI 
44 
33 

18 

87 

83 

2 

I 

4 
4 

6 

22 
4 
3 
4 

9 

13 

8 

6 

13 

I 

2 

87 
175 
283 

92 

55 
67 
59 
34 

containing  this  substance  have  been  eliminated  from  the  Massa- 
chusetts market.  In  most  instances  the  law  requiring  the  per 
cent  of  morphine  to  be  labeled  upon  the  package  has  been  lived  up 
to,  and  the  dealers  in  headache  powders  have  now  complied  with 
the  laws  requiring  that  the  amount  of  acetaniHde  and  phenacetin 
in  such  substances  shall  be  stated  upon  the  label  of  the  package. 
The  fact  that  the  proprietary  medicines  are  at  present  sold  in 
comphance  with  the  law  does  not  mean  that  the  evils  of  the  drug 
habits  have  been  eliminated.  Habitual  users  of  drugs  obtain  a 
supply  in  some  manner,  as  is  shown  by  the  amount  of  such  sub- 
stances which  has  been  found  upon  the  persons  of  prisoners  and 
submitted  to  this  Board  by  the  police.  These  are  not,  however, 
proprietary  drugs,  but  are  either  the  pure  chemicals  or  are 
tablets  containing  them.  It  appears  to  be  impossible  for  a 
non-user  of  these  drugs  to  purchase  them  without  a  prescription 
in  those  stores  the  proprietors  of  which  illegally  sell  such  sub- 


FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION  373 

stances  to  their  regular  customers,  who  naturally  are  known  to 
the  dispensers  as  habitual  users  of  drugs.  The  drugs  sold  on  the 
streets  by  peddlers  are  of  the  same  nature  as  those  dispensed  in 
certain  disreputable  drug  stores. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  traffic  in  hypnotic  drugs  is 
not  what  all  would  desire,  the  present  state  of  afifairs  is  an 
immense  improvement  over  conditions  a  few  years  ago,  when 
alleged  catarrh  powders,  asthma  remedies,  etc.,  containing  cocaine 
were  frequently  sold  in  this  state,  and  many  persons  innocently 
acquired  the  drug  habit  by  using  them  in  good  faith  as  medicines. 
If  a  person  uses  hypnotic  drugs  today  he  must  first  obtain  the 
drug,  no  doubt  illegally,  with  certain  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  substance  he  is  using. 


PART  IV 

ABSTRACTS   OF  SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES   AND 

REPORTS  PUBLISHED  IN  THE  REGULAR 

SERIES  OF  ANNUAL  REPORTS 


I.    ABSTRACTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES 
AND   REPORTS 

1870 

First  Annual  Report 
Report  on  Slaughtering  for  Boston  Market. 

Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  20-37 
One  of  the  first  problems  to  engage  the  attention  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health  was  the  nuisance  caused  by  slaughtering  animals  in  an  insani- 
tary manner  within  six  miles  of  the  State  House.  This  report  describes 
the  conditions,  suggests  remedies,  and  presents  economic  arguments  in 
favor  of  their  adoption. 

Report  on  the  Sale  of  Poisons.  pp.  38-41 

A  brief  statement  of  the  problem. 

The  Prevention  of  Disease.  Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  42-57 

An  address  delivered  at  a  meeting  of  the  Boston  Social  Science 
Association,  December  3,  1868,  before  the  State  Board  of  Health  was 
established. 

1871 

Second  Annual  Report 
Poisoning  by  Lead  Pipe  used  for  the  Conveyance  of  Drinking  Water. 

pp.  22-44 
A  report  stating  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  occurrence  of  lead 
poisoning  in  various  cities  and  towns  of  the  state.  Aside  from  these 
results  the  report  is  of  especial  interest  in  that  it  includes  an  experi- 
mental study  of  the  effect  of  various  waters  on  lead  by  Professor 
William  Ripley  Nichols  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
(pp.  32-40). 

Trichina  Disease  in  Massachusetts.  pp.  46-50 

A  general  discussion  of  this  disease. 

Charbon  in  Massachusetts.  Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nichols,  pp.  86-108 

A  report  on  the  occurrence  of  charbon,  or  malignant  vesicle,  in  the 
state. 

The  Causes  of  Tj^hoid  Fever  in  Massachusetts.  pp.  1 10-179 

A  statistical  study  of  the  occurrence  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  cities 

and  towns  of  the  state  and  a  discussion  of  the  various  causes  suggested. 


378  STATE  SANITATION 

It  was  estimated  that  "  more  than  one  per  cent  of  the  able-bodied 
adult  population  was  rendered  helpless  every  year  from  this  disease  for 
a  period  often  extending  through  many  months." 

The  report  contains  a  summary  of  Pettenkofer's  "  soil  theory  "  of 
the  cause  of  typhoid  fever,  and  this  is  contrasted  with  the  English 
opinion  that  typhoid  fever  was  caused  by  the  contamination  of  water 
by  animal  excrement.  The  letters  received  from  the  physicians  in 
different  parts  of  the  state  are  somewhat  amusing  in  the  light  of  present 
day  knowledge.  It  is  evident  that  at  that  time  the  idea  of  water 
supply  pollution  was  taking  hold  of  the  popular  mind,  but  it  was 
decomposition  of  organic  matter,  not  injection,  that  was  being  considered. 
That  the  situation  was  not  clearly  understood  is  evident  from  the  fol- 
lowing words  taken  from  one  of  the  closing  paragraphs  of  the  report,  — 
"  On  the  question  of  the  propagation  of  typhoid  fever  by  contagion 
there  is  little  new  to  be  said,  and  what  is  old  is  contradictory.  When 
two  such  authorities  concerning  the  fever  of  New  England  as  Dr. 
Nathan  Smith  (who  believed  in  the  contagion  theory)  and  Dr.  James 
Jackson  (who  thought  it  was  miasmic)  differ  in  opinion  on  this  point, 
we  may  be  sure  that  it  is  one  not  readily  settled." 

The  concluding  paragraph,  quoted  from  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  is 
worth  noting.  He  said,  "  To  every  evil  the  Author  of  Nature  has 
kindly  prepared  an  antidote.  Pestilential  fevers  furnish  no  exception 
to  this  remark.  The  means  of  preventing  them  are  as  much  under  the 
power  of  human  reason  and  industry  as  the  means  of  preventing  the 
evils  of  lightning  or  common  fire.  I  am  so  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  this 
opinion  that  I  look  for  the  time  when  our  courts  of  law  shall  punish 
cities  and  villages  for  permitting  any  of  the  sources  of  bilious  and 
malignant  fevers  to  exist  within  their  jurisdiction." 

Letter  from  the  Chairman,  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  concerning 
Houses  for  the  People  and  the  Sewage  Question,  pp.  182-244 
During  the  summer  of  1870  Dr.  Bowditch  resided  in  London.  On 
December  10,  he  wrote  to  the  board,  —  ''I  could  not  serve  Massa- 
chusetts better  than  by  investigating  the  homes  of  the  London  poor 
and  some  of  the  means  used  to  improve  them,  together  with  some 
other  topics  of  similar  importance.  The  results  have  been  of  very 
great  interest  to  me.  I  have  therefore  embodied  them  in  this  letter  to 
you."  This  letter  contained  eight  distinct  sections  having  the  following 
titles:  — 

1.  A  Night-stroll  with  an  Inspector  of  the  London  Metropolitan 
Police,  compared  with  a  similar  one  taken  in  Boston. 

2.  Operations  of  Philanthropists  for  the  Improvement  of  the 
Dwellings  of  the  Poor  in  London. 

3.  The  Improved  Industrial  Dwelling  Company,  or  the  Union  of 
Philanthropy  with  Capital,  and  with  Perfectly  Successful  Results  to 
Both  Parties. 

4.  The  Jarrow  Building  Company,  by  which  a  tenant  becomes  a 
proprieter  of  the  home  he  lives  in. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  379 

5.  Organized  work  among  the  poor,  inaugurated  by  Miss  Octavia 
Hill,  assisted  by  Mr.  Ruskin  and  others. 

6.  A  comparison  between  a  model  lodging  house,  and  a  low  tene- 
ment house  in  Boston. 

7.  Convalescent  homes. 

8.  The  sewage  question  in  England. 

In  the  last  section  Dr.  Bowditch  writes,  "The  great  sanitary  ques- 
tion throughout  Great  Britain  is  the  economic  removal  from  houses  of 
what  is  deleterious  to  man,  and  the  proper  use,  as  a  source  of  income, 
of  what  has  been  heretofore  wholly  wasted.  There  is  no  single  sub- 
ject that  is  attracting  more  attention  in  England,  and  which  excites 
more  heated  partisanship  than  the  vast  questions  looming  up  under 
the  various  names  of  '  earth-closet,'  '  water-closet,'  '  sewage,'  '  its 
danger  to  health,'  '  its  widespread  and  fatal  waste,'  *  its  utilization  as 
a  manure.' "  These  vexed  questions  cropped  out  and  were  bandied 
about  from  section  to  section  of  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  presided  over  by  the  celebrated 
Huxley. 

A  visit  to  the  two  outfalls  of  the  sewers  of  London  into  the  Thames, 
at  Barking  and  Crossness  was  described.  Apparently  at  first  preju- 
diced against  the  plan  of  these  works,  designed  by  the  celebrated 
engineer,  Bazolette,  Dr.  Bowditch  felt  obliged  to  make  the  following 
inferences :  "  First,  That  by  some  means  unknown  to  me  the  excreta 
had  become  deodorized  during  the  water  carriage.  Second,  That  at 
present  there  was  no  proof  that  this  deodorized  sewage  water  of 
London  does  actual  harm  to  those  dwelling  near  it.  I  therefore  remem- 
bered Boston  and  other  cities  of  Massachusetts  with  partial  relief." 

Correspondence  concerning  the  Effects  of  the  Use  of  Intoxicating 
Liquor.  pp.  246-347 

Containing  the  personal  opinions  of  one  himdred  and  sixty-four 
correspondents  on  the  subject.  Chiefly  interesting  as  showing  the 
manner  in  which  the  State  Board  of  Health  began  to  comply  with 
Section  4  of  the  act  under  which  it  was  created. 

Mortality  of  the  City  of  Boston  in  1870.  pp.  350-368 

A  series  of  statistics  prepared  by  Dr.  Frank  W.  Draper. 

The  Ventilation  of  School-houses.  A.  C.  Martin,  pp.  369-383 

The  author  of  this  paper  was  a  Boston  architect.  He  refers  to  the 
prevailing  idea  that  exhaled  carbonic  acid  was  the  chief  cause  of  the 
vitiation  of  the  air  in  crowded  rooms.  He  rejects  this  as  insufficient 
and  holds  that  "  watery  vapor  and  the  animal  matter  given  off  by  the 
lungs  and  the  skin  "  are  of  more  importance.  Carbonic  acid  he  regards 
as  an  obstructor  of  respiration  and  not  a  poison.  "  No  surer  or  more 
exact  test  than  a  well-educated  nose  has,  as  yet,  been  discovered  to 
measure  the  amount  of  vitiating  animal  matter  thrown  into  the  air." 
Some  of  these  ideas  are  now  considered  as  modern.  Martin's  ideas  of 
school-room  ventilation  are  interesting  as  an  example  of  the  use  of 


380  STATE  SANITATION 

many  local  inlets  and  outlets,  the  latter  being  located  at  the  individual 
desks.    Diagrams  illustrative  of  the  principle  are  given. 

Examination  of  the  Water  of  Mystic  Pond.  pp.  386-393 

This  relates  chiefly  to  a  report  made  by  "  Mr.  William  Ripley 
Nichols,  Assistant  Professor  of  General  Chemistry  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology."  The  results  have  no  value  today,  but  the 
state  of  the  art  of  water  analysis  at  that  time  is  shown  by  the  tables  of 
analyses,  which  gave  the  following  results  of  determinations: 

1.  Number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  permanganate  to  a  liter. 

2.  Number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  soap  solution  to  100  cubic 
centimeters  of  water. 

3.  Solid  residue  at  100°  C.  (Given  in  parts  per  100,000  and  also  in 
grains  per  U.  S.  gallon.) 

4.  Loss  on  Gentle  Ignition.    (Similarly  expressed.) 

5.  Chlorine.    (Similarly  expressed.) 

6.  Reactions  for  Nitrites.    (Stated  as  "  slight,"  "  distinct,"  etc.) 

7.  Reaction  for  Sulphates.    (Stated  as  "  slight,"  "  distinct,"  etc.) 
The  report  gives  a  few  of  these  determinations  for  the  water  supplies 

of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 

Air  and  Some  of  Its  Impurities.  pp.  396-408 

Examinations  of  air  for  carbonic  acid  were  made  under  the  direction 
of  Professor  Frank  H.  Storer,  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  and  at  Harvard  College  by  H.  B.  Hill,  Assistant  in 
Chemistry. 

Mr.  Charles  Stodder,  an  accomplished  microscopist  of  Boston, 
undertook  to  make  a  study  of  the  dust  in  the  air  and  contributed  an 
interesting  letter  describing  the  failure  of  certain  methods  and  the 
partial  success  of  others.  He  used  a  glass  surface  smeared  with 
gelatm  to  collect  floating  particles.  Of  especial  interest  is  his  reference 
to  the  iron  particles  found  in  the  dust  collected  from  one  of  the  shops 
in  the  United  States  armory  at  Springfield. 

Health  of  Minors,  employed  in  Manufactures  of  Cotton,  Woolen,  Silk, 
Flax,  and  Jute.  pp.  409-423 

A  compilation  of  statistics. 

Report  on  the  Use  of  Milk  from  Cows  Affected  with  "Foot  and  Mouth 
Disease."  Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nichols,  pp.  426-433 

The  conclusions  were  that  the  disease  could  be  communicated  to 
man  through  the  agency  of  diseased  milk,  but  that  the  disease  so 
acquired  was  not  to  be  dreaded.  Cooked  meat  and  boiled  milk  were 
not  to  be  feared. 

1872 

Third  Annual  Report 

Arsenic  in  Certain  Green  Colors.     Dr.  Frank  W.  Draper,  pp.  18-57 

A  study  of  the  supposed  evil  effects  of  the  use  of  arsenic  in  certain 

green  colors  used  for  dyeing  artificial  flowers,  articles  of  dress,  confec- 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  381 

tionery,  pastry  ornaments,  toys,  wall  papers.  Instances  of  poisoning 
are  cited  both  of  manufacturers  and  users.  Analyses  of  various  sub- 
stances for  arsenic  are  given.  The  public  is  warned  against  green 
paper,  green  lamp-shade,  and  against  most  things  green. 

Milldams  and  other  Water  Obstructions. 

Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  60-70 

Looking  back,  this  seems  to  us  of  today  as  a  curious  article.  Appar- 
ently it  is  an  argument  against  the  storage  of  water  on  the  ground  that 
reservoirs  impede  run-off  and  hence  raise  the  ground  water  level,  con- 
vert meadows  into  swamps,  while  the  waters  become  foul  and  give 
forth  noisome  vapors.  Reservoirs  thus  tend  to  produce  consumption 
and  typho-malarial  fevers. 

Intemperance  as  Seen  in  the  Light  of  Cosmic  Law. 

Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  pp.  71-129 
This  was  an  analysis  of  the  correspondence  on  the  use  and  abuse  of 
intoxicating  drinks  throughout  the  globe  which  was  presented  to  the 
legislature  in  187 1.  Starting  out  with  the  idea  that  the  love  of  stimu- 
lants is  a  human  instinct  Dr.  Bowditch  attempted  to  show  the  funda- 
mental relations  between  intemperance  and  isothermal  lines,  race, 
nature  of  the  stimulant  and  the  culture  of  the  grape. 

In  view  of  present  day  interest  in  the  subject  of  alcoholic  prohibition, 
the  conclusions  of  Dr.  Bowditch's  studies  are  presented  at  some 
length  on  page  12.  The  letter  was  illustrated  by  a  map  of  the  world 
showing  the  distribution  of  intemperance. 

The  Adulterations  and  Impurities  of  Food.    Dr.  Henry  B.  Hill,  Assist- 
ant in  Chemistry,  Harvard  College,  pp.  132-137 
A  study  of  the  action  of  acid  fruits  upon  tin  cans. 

Proper  Provision  for  the  Insane.        Dr.  Edward  Jarvis,  pp.  140-159 
A  general  discussion  of  insanity,  the  various  needs  of  the  insane, 
and  the  proper  arrangement  of  hospitals. 

The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Opium.  Dr.  F.  E.  Oliver,  pp.  162-177 

A  consideration  of  the  drug  habit  in  Massachusetts. 

Sewing  Machines.  Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nichols,  pp.  180-221 

The  sewing  machine  of  Elias  Howe,  Jr.,  of  Cambridge,  was  invented 
in  1846.  Twenty-five  years  later  we  find  a  heated  discussion  as  to  the 
effect  which  the  constant  use  of  foot  machines  had  on  the  health  of  the 
women  operators.  The  article  of  Dr.  Nichols  describes  various  styles 
of  machine  and  their  relative  tendency  to  injure  health.  The  general 
conclusion  was  that  moderate  use  of  the  sewing  machine,  say  three 
or  four  hours  a  day,  was  without  prejudical  effect,  but  that  better 
treadles  might  be  used  with  advantage  and  the  substitution  of  some 
other  motive  power  was  urged. 


382  STATE  SANITATION 

Slaughtering,  Bone  Boiling  and  Fat  Melting. 

Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  224-245 
A  history  of  the  efforts  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  bring  about 
a  reform  in  these  processes. 

Vegetable  Parasites  and  the  Diseases  caused  by  their  growth  upon 
man.  Dr.  James  C.  White,  pp.  248-296 

Smallpox  in  Massachusetts.  Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  297-304 

A  discussion  of  certain  defects  in  the  laws  relating  to  the  control  of 
this  disease. 

1873 

Fourth  Annual  Report 

Sewerage;  Sewage;  The  Pollution  of  Streams;  The  Water  Supply  of 
Towns.  William  Ripley  Nichols,  Professor  General  Chemistry 
in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  pp.  19-108 

This  is  interesting  as  being  the  first  comprehensive  report  on  this 
subject  made  by  the  State  Board  of  Health.  On  April  10,  1872,  the 
legislature  had  "Ordered:  —  that  the  board  of  health  be  requested 
'  to  consider  the  general  subject  of  the  disposition  of  the  sewage  of 
towns  and  cities,  having  in  view: 

"  ^First,  Its  utilization  as  a  fertilizer. 

"  'Second,  The  sanitary  effects  of  draining  the  same  into  the  waters  of 
the  Commonwealth. 

"  'Third,  The  increasing  joint  use  of  water-courses  for  sewers,  and 
as  sources  of  supply  for  domestic  use  by  the  people  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

"  'And  that  the  said  Board  be  requested  to  report  to  the  next  legis- 
lature their  views,  with  such  information  as  they  can  obtain  upon  the 
subject  from  our  own  or  other  lands.'  " 

Professor  Nichols  visited  England  to  study  the  new  developments 
then  being  made  and  his  report  describes  various  processes  then  new, 
but  now  all  but  forgotten.  He  made  a  study  of  the  existing  sewerage 
systems  in  Massachusetts  and  classified  the  cities  and  towns  on  the 
basis  of  completeness  of  system.  He  also  considered  the  effect  of  sew- 
age on  streams,  and  in  particular,  the  effect  of  the  sewage  of  Worcester 
on  the  Blackstone  River,  and  that  of  Lowell  on  the  Merrimack  River. 

The  report  contains  many  analyses  made  by  Professor  Nichols  and 
it  is  interesting  to  compare  these  determinations  with  those  used  in  his 
previous  report  on  Mystic  Lake  two  years  before.  Here  we  find 
figures  for  "  ammonia,"  "  albuminoid  ammonia,"  "  phosphoric  acid," 
"  nitrogen  as  nitrites  and  nitrates,"  "  suspended  matter."  Evidently 
the  art  had  advanced  during  the  interval.  The  report  concludes  with 
a  discussion  of  the  water  supplies  from  the  great  ponds  of  the  state. 

The  chief  interest  of  this  report  of  Professor  Nichols  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  reflects  the  opinions  of  the  various  sanitary  authorities  of  that 
time  on  such  general  questions  as  the  self-purification  of  streams,  the 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  383 

utilization  of  sewage.  Interesting  also  is  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
water  analyses  were  made  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology by  Miss  Ellen  H.  Swallow,  A.B.,  who  afterwards  became  Mrs. 
Ellen  H.  Richards. 

The  Opportunity  and  Possibility  of  Utilizing  Sewage  in  the  City  of 
Worcester.  Phineas  Ball,  pp.  1 09-1 16 

The  Great  Ponds  of  Massachusetts.         H.  F.  Walling,  pp.  11 7-13  2 
A  list  of  the  lakes  and  ponds  with  areas  and  name  of  outlets. 

Beer-shops  and  Prohibitory  Laws.      P.  Emory  Aldrich,  pp.  133-144 
Additional  analyses  of  evidence  as  to  the  use  and  abuse  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors. 

Character  of  Substances  Used  for  Flavoring  Articles  of  Food  and 
Drink.  Dr.  Henry  K.  Oliver,  pp.  145-172 

A  study  of  supposed  deleterious  ingredients  used  for  flavoring  and 
coloring. 

Drainage  for  Health.  Henry  F.  French,  pp.  17 5-1 91 

A  discussion  of  building  sites,  cellar  drainage,  and  sink  drains. 

Infant  Mortality.  Dr.  Edward  Jarvis,  pp.  193-233 

A  scholarly  discussion,  strikingly  modern  in  tone.  It  contains 
statistics  of  infant  mortality  in  different  countries  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States,  comparing  them  with  figures  for  Massa- 
chusetts. The  causes  of  infant  mortality  are  discussed  and  the 
statements  differ  very  little  from  those  so  much  talked  about  today. 
Emphasis  is  laid  on  the  need  of  education  of  mothers,  both  before  and 
after  the  child  is  born. 
This  is  a  paper  well  worth  reading  by  modern  social  workers. 

The  Food  of  the  People  of  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  237-275 
A  collection  of  facts  relating  to  the  habits  of  the  people  of  the  state 
in  the  use  of  foods  of  different  kinds,  based  on  a  circular  letter  sent  to 
the  correspondents  of  the  board  in  the  cities  and  towns.  Such  topics 
as  these  are  touched  upon:  the  quality  of  bread,  variety  in  food,  the 
frying  of  meat,  the  use  of  pastry  and  cakes,  time  devoted  to  meals,  the 
use  of  tea  and  coffee,  the  excessive  use  of  water,  cost  of  labor  as  in- 
fluencing food.  Speaking  of  too  rapid  eating  Dr.  Derby  says,  "  The 
usual  or  average  time  occupied  in  the  process  of  taking  food  by  the 
people  of  this  state  we  think  does  not  exceed  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
minutes  for  each  meal." 

The  paper  contains  interesting  allusions  to  the  domestic  conditions 
of  the  time.  The  wages  of  domestic  servants  were  increasing,  home 
life  was  being  discouraged,  people  were  taking  refuge  in  hotels  and 
boarding-houses,  women  were  leaving  homelife  for  the  factory,  pres- 


384  STATE  SANITATION 

sure  of  town  life  was  increasing.  Special  emphasis  was  laid  on  the 
quality  of  the  bread  being  made,  the  concluding  words  of  the  article 
being,  "  When  bread,  the  staff  of  life  in  all  countries,  is  found  to  be  as 
good  in  Massachusetts  as  in  Europe,  it  will  be  a  sign  that  the  point  at 
which  we  should  aim  has  been  reached." 

The  Adulteration  of  Milk. 

Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nichols  and  Professor  James  F.  Bahcock,  pp.  277-306 
An  early  study  of  a  subject  which  for  many  years  has  given  great 
concern  to  public  health  authorities.  The  subdivisions  of  the  subject 
were:  {a)  The  composition  of  milk,  its  variations,  {b)  Methods  of 
examination,  (c)  Methods  of  adulteration,  {d)  Examination  of 
samples  of  milk  sold  in  Boston,  (e)  Legislative  enactments  with 
regard  to  the  sale  of  adulterated  milk.  At  that  time  Professor  Bab- 
cock  was  Analyst  to  the  City  of  Boston  and  the  report  of  his  analyses 
are  of  interest  to  food  specialists. 

Some  of  the  Causes  or  Antecedents  of  Consumption. 

Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  pp.  307-388 
An  analysis  of  the  correspondence  elicited  by  sending  a  questionnaire 
to  many  physicians  showed  the  following  opinions  to  be  generally 
prevalent  at  that  time. 

Consumption  is  influenced  by  hereditary  tendencies.  The  effect  of 
drunkenness  of  parents  on  consumption  is  not  strongly  marked,  but 
the  effect  of  drunkenness  in  the  individual  is  marked.  Consumption 
is  favored  by  overwork,  by  certain  trades,  by  mental  trouble.  Of  210 
correspondents  only  100  held  the  disease  to  be  contagious,  but  168 
believed  it  to  be  caused  or  promoted  by  a  wet  location,  —  thus  sup- 
porting a  theory  strongly  urged  by  Dr.  Bowditch  himself. 

Adulterations  and  Impurities  of  Food. 

H.  B.  Hill,  Assistant  in  Chemistry,  Harvard  College,  pp.  389-394 

The  Homes  of  the  Poor  in  our  Cities. 

Dr.  Frank  W.  Draper,  pp.  395-441 
A  report  based  on  a  personal  inspection  of  conditions  in  the  following 
eight  cities,  —  Boston,  Fall  River,  Lawrence,  Lowell,  Lynn,  Salem, 
Springfield,  Worcester.  It  contains  an  analysis  of  the  legislation  on  the 
subject  up  to  that  time  and  urges  the  establishment  of  local  boards  of 
health. 

Butcher's  Slaughtering  and  Melting  Association.  pp.  443-447 

A  short  report  to  the  Board  by  the  president  of  the  association. 

1874 

Fifth  Annual  Report 

Preventive  Medicine  and  the  Physician  of  the  Future. 

Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  pp.  31-60 
An  excellent  resume  of  the  state  of  the  art  in  1874.    It  is  reprinted, 
with  some  omissions,  on  page  17. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  385 

On  the  Present  Condition  of  Certain  Rivers  of  Massachusetts,  together 
with  considerations  touching  the  water  supply  of  towns. 

Prof.  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  63-152 

A  study  made  in  continuation  of  that  described  in  the  Fourth 
Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  pp.  19-108,  and  describ- 
ing in  detail  and  with  statements  of  water  analysis  the  various  rivers 
of  Eastern  Massachusetts,  especially  the  Merrimack,  Blackstone, 
Sudbury,  Concord,  Neponset,  and  Charles. 

The  report  contains,  on  page  148,  a  detailed  description  of  the 
methods  of  analyses  used.  The  only  substantial  difference  from  those 
used  the  year  before  was  the  addition  of  the  test  for  dissolved  oxygen. 

On  page  103  is  given  a  discussion  of  the  then  mooted  question  of  the 
self-purification  of  streams. 

At  that  time  the  Cochituate  water  supply  of  Boston  was  polluted  on 
various  streams  and  notably  by  Pegan  Brook  at  Natick.  Several 
storage  dams  on  this  stream  built  for  the  protection  of  the  supply  are 
described.  Certain  pollutions  of  Mystic  Lake,  then  used  as  a  water 
supply  for  Charlestown,  Chelsea,  and  other  places  to  the  north  of 
Boston  were  discussed. 

In  this  report  the  water  supplies  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence,  which 
have  long  been  of  interest  to  sanitarians,  come  into  view.  Lowell 
at  first  considered  a  project  to  use  sand-filter  beds,  but  it  was  decided 
to  use  a  "  filtering-gallery,"  now  generally  called  an  "  infiltration- 
gallery  "  instead.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  in  the  study  of  this 
problem  Nichols  made  determinations  of  iron  (and  alumina) ,  hardness 
and  dissolved  oxygen,  very  much  as  a  modern  chemist  would  do. 
Lawrence  was  then  constructing  its  new  works  and  it  was  proposed  to 
draw  water  directly  from  the  river  except  when  it  was  turbid.  At  such 
times  it  was  the  intention  to  take  water  from  a  filtering-well  near  the 
shore. 

The  Charles  River  was  considered  as  a  source  of  water  supply  by 
a  number  of  communities,  Dedham,  West  Roxbury,  Brookline,  New- 
ton, Waltham,  and  Watertown,  and  there  were  acrimonious  discus- 
sions between  those  who  favored  the  river  and  those  who  favored  Lake 
Cochituate.  In  1874  Waltham  alone  took  water  from  the  river  and 
Nichols  discussed  the  quality  of  water  from  this  source  in  his  report. 
The  soundness  of  his  ideas  throughout  this  and  other  discussions  are, 
in  the  light  of  present  day  knowledge,  notable. 

The  Brighton  Abattoir.  pp.  153-180 

A  description  of  the  abattoir,  a  list  of  the  regulations  approved  by 
the  State  Board  of  Health  and  a  letter  from  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  describing  certain  abattoirs  in  Europe. 

The  Health  of  the  Farmers  of  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  J.  F.  A.  Adams,  pp.  181-248 

A  paper  based  largely  upon  correspondence  with  physicians.     It 

treats  of  the  following  topics:  social  condition  and  prosperity;  longev- 


386  STATE  SANITATION 

ity;  general  health;  causes  of  disease;  prevailing  diseases;  then 
of  the  farmer's  work,  his  diet,  location  of  dwellings,  cleanliness  of 
surroundings,  drinking  water,  sleeping  apartments,  mental  influences. 

Some  Farm-Houses  and  Some  Mistaken  Ways  of  Living  in  Them. 

Mrs.  Thomas  F.  Plunkett,  pp.  249-259 

Cerebro-Spinal  Meningitis  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  J.  Baxter  Upham,  pp.  261-312 
A  report  on  the  epidemic  which  occurred  in  Massachusetts  in  1873, 
with  an  inquiry  into  the  circumstances  attending  its  origin  or  supposed 
cause.  Correspondence  with  physicians  was  analyzed  as  to  the 
occurrence  of  the  disease  in  different  places  and  the  relation  of  the 
disease  to  sanitary  conditions.    The  conclusions  were  largely  negative. 

Hospitals.  Dr.  George  Derby,  pp.  313-332 

The  object  of  this  paper,  the  author  states,  was  to  show  the  advan- 
tage of  hospitals,  constructed  simply,  detached  from  each  other,  and 
of  a  single  story. 

Political  Economy  of  Health.  Dr.  Edward  Jarvis,  pp.  333-390 

A  splendid  discussion  of  public  health  based  on  a  text  quoted  from  the 
distinguished  sanitary  engineer,  Baldwin  Latham,  "  Health  is  the  Capi- 
tal of  the  Laboring  man."  The  subject  is  treated  from  many  stand- 
points, —  statistical,  financial,  political,  moral,  physical.  Answering 
the  question  "  Can  the  government  aid  in  Improving  Human  Life  ?  " 
Jarvis  refers  to  the  threefold  powers  of  government  which  are  exerted. 

"  It  is  mandatory,  and  says,  thou  shalt  and  thou  shalt  not." 

"  It  is  permissive,  and  grants  privileges." 

"  It  is  advisory,  instructive  and  encouraging." 

A  resume  is  given  of  some  of  the  more  important  laws  relating  to 
public  health  enacted  in  England  (p.  364). 

School  Hygiene.  Dr.  Frederick  Winsor,  pp.  391-448 

A  general  discussion  based  on  correspondence  with  physicians. 
Then  as  now  the  crying  need  was  for  better  ventilation. 

Work  of  Local  Boards  of  Health.      Dr.  Azel  Ames,  Jr.,  pp.  449-486 
A  description  of  the  status  of  the  local  boards  of  health  and  their 
work. 

Use  of  Zinced  or  Galvanized  Iron,  for  the  storage  and  conveyance  of 
Drinking  Water.  Dr.  W.  E.  Boardman,  pp.  487-510 

An  excellent  resume  of  the  views  of  scientists,  with  a  letter  from 
Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols.  The  conclusion  is  well  stated  and 
the  opinion  stands  today. 

"It  is  proved  theoretically,  experimentally  and  practically  that 
zinc  is  acted  upon  by  ordinary  drinking  water;  that  water,  allowed 
to  stand  in  reservoirs  or  drawn  through  pipes  of  zinced  or  galvanized 
iron,  usually  contains  an  appreciable  amount  of  zinc,  more  or  less, 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  387 

according  to  various  influences;  that  the  zinc,  contained  in  the  water, 
is  in  the  form  of  undissolved  oxide  and  carbonate  and  of  dissolved 
salts,  the  exact  nature  of  the  latter  not  being  known;  that  probably 
under  no  circumstances  is  the  oxide  or  the  carbonate  an  active  or 
gradual  poison,  much  less  in  the  amounts  in  which  they  can  occur 
under  the  conditions  mentioned;  that,  at  least  with  water  fit  for 
drinking  purposes  in  other  respects,  the  contained  zinc  salts  in  solution 
do  not  exert  any  deleterious  effects  upon  the  human  system;  finally, 
that,  even  if  all  the  zinc  in  solution  were  in  the  form  of  the  chloride, 
which  is  known  to  be  the  most  active  poison  of  the  zinc  salts,  the 
amount  would  still  be  insufficient  to  endanger  health." 

1875 

Sixth  Annual  Report 
Inebriate  Asylums  or  Hospitals.  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  pp.  25-53 
Dr.  Bowditch,  after  discussing  the  difference  between  vicious  and 
morbid  drunkenness,  suggested  a  method  of  dealing  with  the  problem 
by  establishing  state  asylums  for  inebriates,  and  described  his  idea  of 
how  such  asylums  should  be  conducted.  As  a  result  of  this  paper  the 
Board  recommended  to  the  legislature  the  establishment  or  endowment 
of  one  or  more  asylums  as  a  sanitary  measure  of  the  highest  importance. 

The  Value  of  Health  to  the  State.     Dr.  W.  E.  Boardman,  pp.  55-75 
A  statistical  and  economic  study. 

On  the  Transportation  of  Live-stock.  /,  C.  Hoadley,  pp.  77-132 

A  report  by  an  engineer,  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Board.  It 
discusses  the  subject  "  in  its  economical,  sanitary  and  humane  as- 
pects." The  first  of  these —  "  abundant  food  at  a  reasonable  price  " 
—  gives  the  key  to  the  situation.  Although  a  vital  subject  at  the  time, 
linked  as  it  was  with  the  studies  of  the  abattoirs,  the  details  of  the 
paper  are  no  longer  of  importance. 

Our  Meat  Supply,  and  PubUc  Health. 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  133-183 
An  account  of  the  various  ways  in  which  decayed  or  infected  meat 
may  cause  disease  to  human  beings,  including  a  study  of  trichina  and 
other  parasites. 

The  Brighton  Abattoir.  Mr.  J.  N.  Meriam,  pp.  185-203 

An  account  of  various  matters  relating  to  the  business  of  slaughter- 
ing cattle  for  the  market.    Regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

On  the  Composition  of  the  Air  of  the  Ground-Atmosphere. 

Prof.  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  205-224 

This  investigation  was  made,  no  doubt,  because  of  the  prominence 

at  that  time  of  the  theories  of  Pettenkofer,  which  had  to  do  with  the 

sanitary  significance  of  ground  water  and  ground  air.   Nichols  collected 


388  STATE  SANITATION 

samples  of  ground  air  by  an  interesting  method  (p.  214)  at  various 
places  in  the  Back  Bay,  where  the  city  "  consisted  largely  of  made 
land."  These  were  tested  for  CO2,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  am- 
monia. The  CO2  results  were  quantitative  and  are  given  in  the  paper. 
They  ranged  from  about  7  to  45  parts  per  10,000  just  below  the  sur- 
face to  25  to  200  parts  at  depths  of  10  or  12  feet.  The  quantities 
were  higher  in  summer  than  in  winter.  No  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
was  found.  Nichols,  with  his  keen  scientific  mind,  expresses  his 
opinion  that  no  very  useful  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the  CO2 
tests.  He  practically  gave  the  ground  air  of  the  Back  Bay  district  a 
clean  bill  of  health.  In  an  appendix  to  his  report  (p.  221)  he  describes 
experiments  made  by  Professor  Fleck  in  Dresden  to  show  the  varia- 
tions in  the  CO2  of  ground  air  above  a  decomposing  body.  The  data 
given  are  interesting. 

Ventilation  of  Railroad  Cars.  Dr.  Theodore  W.  Fisher  and 

Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  225-240 

A  report  of  analyses  of  air  in  cars,  especially  smoking  cars.    The  CO2 

found  varied  from  10  to  37  parts  per  10,000.    References  to  previous 

studies  by  various  writers  are  given. 

Cremation  and  Burial.  Dr.  J.  F.  A.  Adams,  pp.  241-325 

An  elaborate  discussion  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two 
methods,  largely  historical  and  with  many  references  to  other  writings. 
His  conclusion  was  that  cremation  is  an  innovation  not  demanded  in 
this  country  on  sanitary  grounds. 

1876 

Seventh  Annual  Report 

The  greater  portion  of  this  report  is  devoted  to  the  subjects  of  stream 
pollution,  drainage,  sewage  disposal  and  water  supply.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  great  classic  reports  of  the  Board. 

Rivers  Pollution.  James  P.  Kirkwood,  C.E.,  pp.  21-154 

In  1875  (Chapter  192)  the  legislature  had  passed  an  act  providing 
for  an  investigation  of  the  question  of  the  use  of  running  streams  as 
common  sewers  in  its  relation  to  the  public  health.  Mr.  Kirkwood, 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  then  an  eminent  authority  was  appointed  by  the 
Board  to  make  a  systematic  examination  of  certain  of  the  river-basins 
of  the  state.    His  report  is  divided  into  several  parts. 

Part  I  (p.  21)  is  a  summary  of  the  then  prevalent  ideas  concerning 
the  relation  between  the  use  of  unclean  water  supplies  and  disease, 
notably  cholera.  Illustrations  are  taken  from  the  water  supplies  of 
London. 

Part  II  (p.  37),  which  comprises  the  body  of  the  report,  is  a  statis- 
tical study  of  the  various  drainage  areas  studied,  with  accounts  of  the 
various  trade  wastes  encountered.     The  following  index  to  these 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  389 

topics  will  assist  the  reader  in  obtaining  an  idea  of  the  scope  of  the 
investigation  and  be  a  convenience  in  iinding  the  data  in  the  report: 
Woolen  manufacture  (p.  37),  cotton  manufacture  (pp.  42  and  45), 
bleach- works  (p.  45),  linen  and  jute  manufacture  (p.  46),  silk  manu- 
facture (p.  49),  paper  manufacture  (p.  50),  metal  manufacture  (p.  60). 
On  page  69  is  given  an  account  of  the  effect  of  various  poisons  in 
water  on  fish  life: 

Blackstone  River,  p.  73. 
Neponset  River,  p.  89. 
Charles  River,  p.  97. 
Chicopee  River,  p.  109. 
Taunton  River,  p.  123. 
Part  III  (p.  144),  contains  the  general  conclusions  and  recommen- 
dations. 

Tables  of  Analyses.     Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  155-174 
Many  samples  of  water  were  analyzed  by  Professor  Nichols  in  con- 
nection  with   Kirkwood's   investigation.     The   methods   used   were 
practically  the  same  as  had  been  used  for  several  years  previous. 

Water  Supply,  Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  the  State,  from  the  Sanitary 
Point  of  View.  Dr.  Frederick  Winsor,  pp.  175-275 

A  report  of  the  sources  of  water  supply  and  the  place  of  sewage 
disposal  for  many  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  state,  based  upon  the 
answer  to  eleven  questions  sent  out  by  the  author  in  a  circular  letter 
and  answered  by  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  cities  and  towns.  It 
contains  many  points  of  information  in  regard  to  the  water  supplies 
of  the  state  as  they  were  at  that  time. 

On  pages  1 80-1 91  is  given  a  discussion  of  the  methods  of  excrement 
removal  used  in  England  and  elsewhere,  with  sketch  of  privies  and 
arrangements  of  parts. 

The  tables  relating  to  water  supplies  begin  on  page  193,  and  those, 
on  sewer  outlets  on  page  202. 

Three  principles  stated  on  page  218  give  a  good  illustration  of  cur- 
rent ideas  as  to  the  danger  of  water  pollution.  In  brief  they  were  as 
follows: 

First.  Chemical  analysis  is  not  alone  suflEicient  to  detect  impurities 
in  water  for  an  incredibly  small  amount  of  the  poison  of  typhoid  fever 
or  cholera  is  sufficient  to  set  up  specific  morbid  actions. 

Second.  A  water  supply  not  enough  polluted  to  actually  cause 
disease  or  be  detected  by  the  chemist  may  yet  gradually  and  insidiously 
lower  the  vigor  and  cause  persons  who  may  subsequently  drink 
polluted  water  to  succumb. 

Third.  Where  sewers  must  inevitably  discharge  into  a  body  of  water 
used  for  drinking,  it  should  be  strictly  forbidden  to  discharge  any 
excrement  into  the  sewers. 

On  page  231,  et  seq.  are  given  detailed  accounts  of  certain  water 
supplies  and  sewerage  works  in  various  cities,  as  follows:    Boston 


390  STATE  SANITATION 

(p.  232),  Haverhill  (p.  248),  Lynn  (p.  249),  Salem  (p.  257),  South 
Braintree  (p.  261),  Winchester  (p.  262),  Worcester  (p.  264). 

Well  waters  are  discussed  on  page  268. 

The  new  water  supply  of  Springfield  obtained  from  Ludlow  Reser- 
voir is  referred  to  on  p.  271  and  mention  is  made  of  the  occurrence  of 
Anabaena  (then  erroneously  called  Nostoc)  for  which  this  supply  has 
long  been  famous. 

The  ice  supply  of  Pittsfield  is  described  on  p.  274. 

The  Disposal  of  Sewage.  Dr.  C.  F.  Folsom,  pp.  276-401 

This  is  a  comprehensive  discussion  of  current  sewage  disposal 
practice  in  Europe  in  1875,  ^  ^st  of  the  principal  topics  treated  will 
indicate  its  wide  scope. 

pp. 
The  efifect  of  filth  on  health  279 

The  influence  of  sewer  gas  on  health  281 

Water  contaminated  by  sewage  283 

Experience  in  England,  a  list  of  sanitary  measures,  with  dates  285 
The  sewage  question  in  England  289 

Substitutes  for  the  water-carriage  system  299 

Experience  in  France  302 

Experience  in  Germany  307 

Experience  in  Holland  ("  Liernur  system  ")  311 

Experience  in  other  countries  322 

Processes  for  purifying  sewage  323 

Irrigation  (a  very  interesting  description)  334 

Method  of  disposing  of  sewage  in  various  European  cities,  with 
maps  and  estimates  of  cost  347 

Summary  and  Recommendations.  A  report  signed  by  the  State 

Board  of  Health,  and  by  James  P.  Kirkwood,  Frederick  Winsor, 
and  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  402-408 
The  recommendations  were  as  follows: 

I.  That  no  city  or  town  shall  be  allowed  to  discharge  sewage  into 
any  water-course  or  pond  without  first  purifying  it  according  to  the 
best  process  at  present  known,  and  which  consists  in  irrigation; 
provided,  that  this  regulation  do  not  apply  to  the  discharge  from 
sewers  already  built,  unless  water  supplies  be  thereby  polluted;  and 
provided,  also,  that  any  intended  discharge  of  sewage  can  be  shown 
to  be  at  such  a  point  or  points  that  no  nuisance  will  arise  from  it. 

II.  That  no  sewage  of  any  kind,  whether  purified  or  not,  be  allowed 
to  enter  any  pond  or  stream  used  for  domestic  purposes. 

HI.  That  each  water-basin  should  be  regarded  by  itself  in  the 
preparation  of  plans  of  sewage  and  water  supplies. 

IV.  That  accurate  topographical  surveys  be  always  made  of  all 
towns  before  introducing  water  supplies  or  sewers. 

V.  That  steps  should  be  taken,  by  special  legislation,  based  upon 
investigations  and  recommendations  of  experts,   to  meet  cases  of 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  391 

serious  annoyance  arising  from  defective  arrangements  for  the  disposal 
of  sewage. 

VI.  That  irrigation  be  adopted,  at  first  experimentally,  in  those 
places  where  some  process  of  purification  of  sewage  is  necessary;  and 
that  cities  and  towns  be  authorized  by  law  to  take  such  land  as  may  be 
necessary  for  that  purpose. 

VII.  That  every  city  or  town  of  over  four  thousand  inhabitants  be 
required  by  law  to  appoint  a  board  of  health,  the  members  of  which 
shall  be  required  not  to  hold  any  other  offices  in  the  government  of 
their  city  or  town. 

Sanitary  Hints.  Dr.  Henry  I.  Bowditch,  pp.  409-422 

Some  experiences  with  typhoid-fever  epidemics  with  some  suggested 
practical  remedies. 

Defects  in  House-Drainage  and  Their  Remedies. 

Edward  S.  Philbrick,  C.E.,  pp.  423-464 
Some  of  the  criticisms  made  in  this  article  apply  today,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  fixtures  described  long  ago  went  out  of  use.    The  article 
is  well  written  and  well  illustrated,  but  its  value  is  chiefly  historical. 

Report  on  an  Outbreak  of  Intestinal  Disorder  Attributable  to  the 
Contamination  of  Drinking  Water  by  Means  of  Impure  Ice. 

Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nichols,  pp.  465-474 
An  outbreak  of  disease,  often  referred  to  as  having  been  caused  by 
decomposing  organic  matter,  frozen  into  the  ice,  —  a  theory  no  longer 
tenable. 

Report  on  the  Registration  of  Prevalent  Diseases. 

Dr.  Frank  W.  Draper,  pp.  474-492 
A  suggested  plan  for  getting  weekly  reports  of  prevalent  diseases  to 
be  compiled  and  published  by  a   "  Bureau  of  Health  Correspond- 
ence."   The  article  contains  charts  showing  variations  in  the  occur- 
rence of  various  diseases. 

Health  of  Boston  in  1875.  Dr.  F.  E.  Oliver,  pp.  493-506 

A  statement  as  to  the  prevalence  of  certain  diseases. 

The  Surface-drainage  of  the  Metropolitan  District. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Folsom,  pp.  507-512 
A  description  of  certain  fresh-water  marshes  and  salt-water  marshes. 

The  Health  of  LoweU,  1875.  Dr.  F.  Nickerson,  pp.  515-524 

A  statement  as  to  the  prevalence  of  certain  contagious  diseases. 

1877 

Eighth  Annual  Report 
The  Pollution  of  Streams,  Disposal  of  Sewage,  etc. 

Dr.  C.  F.  Folsom,  with  Chemical  Examinations  by  Professor 

William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  19-79 

This  paper  recounts  the  results  of  a  sanitary  survey,  with  map, 

made  by  Mr.  E.  K.  Clark,  C.E.,  of  the  Nashua  River  Basin.    Included 


392  STATE  SANITATION 

in  it  (p.  48)  is  a  report  by  Professor  Nichols  giving  the  results  of 
analyses  of  water  samples  collected  at  various  places.  On  page  68 
there  is  a  brief  statement  of  the  pollution  of  the  Merrimack  River. 
Then  follows,  on  page  73,  the  text  of  an  act  passed  in  England  the 
year  before  and  known  as  the  Rivers  Pollution  Prevention  Act,  1876, 

The  Disposal  of  Sewage.  Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  80-113 

This  report  alludes  to  the  experiments  made  at  the  insane  asylums 
at  Concord,  N.  H.,  Augusta,  Me.,  and  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  the 
women's  prison  at  Sherborn,  and  to  recent  experiences  in  England. 
On  page  88  are  given  the  opinions  of  experts  and  on  page  90  the  latest 
English  government  statistics.  Then  follow  references  to  German 
(p.  104)  and  French  (p.  105)  experiences. 

Effects  of  Bad  Drainage  on  Health. 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  1 13-136 

Interest  in  this  paper  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  makes  mention  of  the 
controversies  then  arising  in  England  between  Wanklyn,  Frankland 
and  others.  Professor  Wanklyn  held  that  the  contagium  of  the  water- 
borne  diseases  was  of  an  albuminoid  character  and  could  be  removed 
by  filtration.  Professor  Frankland  belongs  to  the  "  Purist  "  school, 
and  condemned  the  use  of  river  waters  to  which  sewage  had  access, 
going  so  far  as  to  recommend  that  the  Thames  supply  of  London  be 
abandoned  on  the  ground  that  even  filtration  would  not  sufiiciently 
remove  the  "  animal  and  other  offensive  matters."  In  this  contro- 
versy both  sides  were  partly  right  and  partly  wrong.  The  paper  refers 
also  to  another  controversy  in  Germany,  Virchow  holding  that  the 
level  of  the  ground  water  did  not  always  bear  a  relation  to  the  occur- 
rence of  typhoid  fever,  and  Pettenkofer  holding  to  his  old  theory  that 
"  the  chief  agency  in  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera  was  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  from  variations  in  the 
level  of  the  ground  water,  allowing  the  virus  to  escape  into  the  air." 

On  page  118  we  find  mention  of  bacteria  and  the  controversy  as  to 
whether  the  germs  of  disease  may  arise  de  now  from  filth. 

Then  follow  several  accounts  of  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  and  their 
probable  cause.  One  at  Fort  Cumberland  was  thought  to  be  due  to 
"  sewage  contaminated  air,"  one  at  Uppingham  to  badly  laid  drains, 
and  one  at  Eagley  caused  by  watered  milk.  On  page  124  is  an  account 
of  the  celebrated  typhoid-fever  epidemic  at  Lausen,  Switzerland  in 
1872,  with  a  statement  as  to  the  theory  that  it  was  caused  by  a  "  germ." 

Under  the  caption  "  Prevention  of  Filth  Diseases  "  the  need  of 
adequate  sewerage  is  pointed  out  and  on  page  130  are  given  the  regula- 
tions adopted  at  Frankfort,  where  W.  Lindley  was  Chief  Engineer. 
Dr.  Buchanan's  recommendations  as  to  the  use  of  the  running  trap, 
or  house  trap,  are  given  on  page  133. 

Sewerage,  its  Advantages  and  Disadvantages,   Construction  and 

Maintenance.  E.  S.  Chesborough,  C.E.,  pp.  137-167 

A  general  paper  by  the  celebrated  engineer  of  Chicago  who  designed 

some  of  the  earliest  great  sewerage  systems  in  the  United  States.    It 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  393 

treats  the  subject  from  the  engineering  standpoint,  and  is  not  of  much 
interest  to  present  day  readers. 

The  Sanitary  Condition  of  Lynn.        Dr.  J.  G.  Pinkham,  pp.  169-230 
A  sanitary  survey,  apparently  quite  complete  and  containing  one 
unique  feature,  - —  a  table  of  death-rates  by  streets. 

Registration  of  Deaths  and  Diseases. 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  231-271 
A  study  of  the  accuracy  of  the  returns  in  Massachusetts. 
On  page  258  is  a  history  of  the  registration  of  deaths  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  a  statement  as  to  the  faults  in  existing  law.  On  page  262 
some  amusing  causes  of  death  are  given  as  "  death  caused  by  five 
doctors,"  "  delicate  from  birth,"  "  coUocinphantum,"  "  direars," 
"  artry  lung  busted,"  etc. 

The  Growth  of  Children.    Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  Professor  of  Physiology, 
Harvard  Medical  School.  pp.  273-323 

An  elaborate  and  very  important  statistical  study  of  the  height  and 
weight  of  the  school  children  of  Boston,  classified  by  age,  sex,  nation- 
ality, and  occupation  of  parents.  The  data  are  given  both  by  tables 
and  diagrams  and  are  very  valuable  for  purposes  of  comparison  with 
more  recent  studies.  Comparisons  at  the  time  were  made  with 
European  studies  by  Quetelet  and  others.  This  paper  has  long  been 
regarded  as  a  classic. 

Disease  of  the  Mind.  Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  325-433 

An  extended  treatise  of  the  general  subject  under  ten  headings  as 
follows:  I.  Early  treatment  of  the  Insane.  2.  Pinel's  reform  and 
European  progress.  3.  English  progress  and  ConoUy.  4.  American 
progress.  5.  Modern  methods  of  Less  Restraint.  6.  Responsibility  for 
crime  and  definitions  of  insanity.  7.  Massachusetts  statistics  and 
asylums  accommodation.  8.  Supervision  by  the  state.  9.  Certain 
asylum  needs.    10.  Medical  education. 

1878 

Ninth  Annual  Report 

Drainage  and  Health;    Sewerage;    and  the  Pollution  of  Streams, 

report  by  the  Board.  pp.  1-80 

The  first  sixty-six  pages  of  this  report  give  the  results  of  a  study  of 
the  stream  pollutions  of  the  Hoosac  and  Housatonic  rivers  by  Mr.  E. 
K.  Clark,  C.E.,  and  Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols. 

As  a  result  of  a  three-years  study  of  stream  pollution  the  Board 
recommended  the  passage  of  a  bill  establishing  a  Rivers  Pollution 
Commission.  The  reasons  for  this  are  given  on  page  66,  and  the 
proposed  law  on  page  73.  This  was  entitled  "  A  bill  to  prevent  the 
pollution  of  streams  and  for  other  purposes."  On  page  77  will  be  found 
certain  other  recommendations  of  the  board  in  regard  to  privies,  cess- 
pools, earth  closets  and  sewerage  systems. 


394  STATE  SANITATION 

Cottage  Hospitals.  Dr.  J.F.  A.  Adams,  pp.  81-95 

A  paper  advocating  the  cottage  hospital  and  showing  sketches  and 
floor-plans. 

Dangers  from  Color  Blindness.  Dr.  B.  Joy  Jeffries,  pp.  97-136 

A  good  discussion  of  the  subject  emphasizing  the  dangers  to  the  com- 
munity from  the  employment  of  color  blind  persons  in  certain  positions, 
especially  on  railroads,  where  a  discernment  of  color  is  necessary. 
Contains  a  long  bibliography. 

The  Filtration  of  Potable  Water. 

Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  137-226 

This  is  one  of  the  early  American  classics  on  the  subject  of  filtration 
written  by  a  master  mind  before  the  days  of  bacteriology.  A  portion 
of  the  report  is  reprinted  on  page  26,  in  order  that  the  student  of 
today  may  see  the  ideas  of  the  leading  expert  on  the  chemistry  of  water 
more  than  thirty-five  years  ago. 

The  report  is  divided  into  three  parts,  treating  respectively:  I. 
Artificial  filtration  on  a  large  scale  (p.  141);  II.  Natural  filtration 
(p.  175);  III.  Household  filtration. 

The  discussion  of  sand  filtration  was  naturally  based  largely  on 
English  experience,  but  interesting  references  are  made  to  the  early 
American  works  at  Hudson  and  Poughkeepsie,  Columbus  and  Toledo, 
Springfield  and  Lowell.  We  find  in  this  report  also  one  of  the  first 
important  discussions  of  the  algae  problem  in  reservoirs.  FUter 
experiments  made  at  Springfield  in  1877,  using  the  cement-lined  pipes 
then  common,  are  mentioned  and  analyses  given. 

Much  of  the  material  in  this  paper  was  afterwards  published  in  his 
well  known  volume  "  Water  Supply,"  published  in  1883,  but  still  read 
by  students. 

Sanitation  of  Public  Schools.  Dr.  D.  F.  Lincoln,  pp.  227-252 

This  paper  concerns  itself  with  the  site,  construction,  sewerage, 
drainage  and  ventilation  of  schoolhouses.  Like  many  other  papers 
of  that  period  it  was  based  on  data  obtained  from  circular  letters.  The 
replies  received  from  persons  outside  of  Boston,  scattered  through 
nearly  one  hundred  cities  and  towns,  and  from  the  Boston  school 
authorities,  represented  about  one-sixth  of  the  school  population  of 
the  state,  and  serve  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  conditions  existing  at 
that  date.  Then,  as  now,  the  ventilation  problem  was  one  attracting 
attention. 

Scarlet  Fever.  Dr.  A.  H.  Johnson,  pp.  253-327 

Statistics  of  the  disease,  sources  and  methods  of  contagion,  the 
influence  of  insanitary  surroundings  are  described  and  the  following 
conclusions  drawn:  "  The  contagion  is  particulate,  capable  of  exceed- 
ingly minute  subdivision,  has  a  very  light  specific  gravity,  is  very 
tenacious,  is  not  volatile."    Evidently  the  author  accepted  some  of  the 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  395 

newer  ideas  in  regard  to  the  germ  theory  then  beginning  to  gain  ground. 
Lastly,  follow  methods  of  disinfection,  and  the  function  of  hospitals  in 
controlling  scarlet-fever. 

Report  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  Cambridge. 

Dr.  Edward  R.  Cogswell,  pp.  329-374 
A  fairly  complete  survey  of  the  sanitary  conditions  in  1878,  taking 
up  the  natural  conditions  of  the  city,  make-up  of  the  population, 
certain  artificial  conditions  (water  supply,  sewerage,  low  lands,  house 
drainage,  etc.),  vital  statistics,  prevailing  diseases,  and  comparisons 
of  health  of  different  districts.  These  matters  are  of  considerable  local 
interest,  especially  the  analyses  of  the  Fresh  Pond  water  which  go 
back  to  1872. 

1879 
Tenth  Annual  Report 
An  Asylum,  or  "Hospital  Home."  Dr.  T.  S.  Clouston,  pp.  1-32 

A  detailed  description  of  the  general  principles  of  hospital  construc- 
tion, with  suggested  plans. 

The  Growth  of  Children.  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  pp.  33-62 

A  continuation  of  the  report  on  the  same  subject  published  in  1877 
(8th  An.  Report,  pp.  273-323).    This  second  paper  discusses  the  rela- 
tion between  growth  of  children  in  Boston  schools  and  occupation  of 
parents. 
A  description  is  given  of  the  anthropometrical  methods  used. 

Physical  Education  and  Hygiene  in  Amherst  CoUege. 

Professor  Edward  Hitchcock,  pp.  63-72 
An  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  physical  condition  of  the 
students  was  being  looked  after. 

Coal-Gas  from  Heating  Apparatus.    Dr.  Frederick  Winsor,  pp.  73-84 
Dangers  from  poisoning  by  carbonic  oxide  due  to  escape  of  coal-gas. 

Common  Defects  in  House-Drains. 

Mr.  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  C.E.,  pp.  85-109 
A  very  interesting  description  of  some  of  the  old  sewers.    Profusely 
illustrated  with  sketches. 

Evidence  in  Case  of  The  City  of  Cambridge  vs.  Niles  Brothers  before 
State  Board  of  Health.  pp.  111-227 

This  case  resulted  from  a  complaint  made  by  the  City  of  Cambridge 
that  the  establishment  of  a  proposed  slaughterhouse  by  Niles  Brothers 
on  the  catchment  area  of  Fresh  Pond  would  impair  the  quality  of  the 
public  water  supply  of  that  city. 

The  testimony  and  the  arguments  (pp.  208  and  220)  give  an  interest- 
ing picture  of  the  conception  of  the  day  as  to  what  constitutes  the 
pollution  of  a  water  supply. 

The  case  was  not  closed  this  year  and  references  to  it  are  given  in 
subsequent  reports  of  the  Board. 


396  STATE  SANITATION 

A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Ventilation.  Dr.  Edward  S.  Wood, 
Professor  of  Chemistry,  Harvard  Medical  School,  pp.  231-248 
Results  of  observations  of  temperature,  humidity,  air  currents,  etc., 
at  the  Boston  City  Hospital.  Also  tests  for  carbonic  acid.  Diagrams 
showing  air  currents  at  the  flow  level  and  at  heights  of  3,  6,  9,  12,  15 
and  18  feet  above  the  floor  around  the  hospital  beds.  Apparently  a 
very  careful  study  of  the  subject. 

1879 

Eleventh  Report.    For  Six  Months  ending  June  30,  1879 

No  scientific  papers  were  published  in  this  report. 

General  Index.  Dr.  Francis  H.  Brown,  pp.  45-184 

A  complete  alphabetical  index  of  volumes  I  to  XI  inclusive. 

1879    Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  First  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Healthy 
Lunacy  and  Charity 

Pollution  of  the  Westfield  and  Merrimack  Rivers. 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom,  pp.  1-18 
A  sanitary  survey  made  in  continuation  of  the  investigation  begun 
by  Mr.  J.  P.  Kirkwood  in  1875. 

Pollution  of  a  Brook  by  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  19-21 
An  account  of  an  accidental  discharge  of  sulphuric  acid  into  a  tribu- 
tary of  Mystic  Pond,  by  reason  of  a  fire  in  chemical  works. 

Trichinae  in  Relation  to  the  PubUc  Health. 

Dr.  F.  S.  Billings,  pp.  23-54 
A  description  of  the  organism,  its  method  of  entering  the  body, 
dangers  from  swine,  and  methods  of  prevention  are  all  described. 

Adulteration  of  Some  Staple  Groceries. 

Mrs.   Ellen  H.  Richards,  Instructor  in  Chemistry,  Woman's 
Laboratory,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  pp.  55-65 
A  general  report  as  to  the  adulteration  of  staple  groceries.    Contains 
few  analyses. 

The  Water  Supply  of  Cambridge.      Dr.  Edward  S.  Woods,  pp.  67-94 
An  important  report  on  the  local  pollution  of  the  catchment  area  of 
Fresh  Pond.    One  of  the  water  analyses  quoted  dates  back  to  1853 
(p.  85).    Many  analyses  given  for  years  1875-79. 

Observations  on  Fresh  Pond,  Cambridge. 

Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  95-107 
"  A  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  stored  waters,"  containing  a 
diagram  showing  seasonal  fluctuations  in  temperature  of  water  and 
water  analyses,  —  an  early  study  of  stagnation. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  397 

Examination  of  Mystic  River,  with  Remarks  on  Frankland's  Method  of 
Water  Analyses.  Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols,  pp.  111-120 
This  is  an  interesting  discussion  of  methods  of  water  analysis.  Few 
students  of  today  know  of  the  controversies  of  Frankland  and  Wanklyn 
as  to  the  respective  merits  of  the  "  carbon-nitrogen  ratio,"  and  the 
"  albuminoid  and  free  ammonia  method."  In  this  controversy 
Nichols  sided  with  Wanklyn. 

Algae  Observed  in  Storage  Basin  No.  3  of  the  Boston  Water  Supply 
in  1879.  Alphonse  Fiely,  Resident  Engineer,  Boston  Water  Works, 

pp.  1 21-128 
A  study  of  water  temperatures  and  algae  growths  in  Basin  No.  3, 
with  reference  to  a  small  experimental  sand  filter.    Diagram  given. 

On  Some  Impurities  of  Drinking  Water  Caused  by  Vegetable  Growths. 

Professor  W.  G.  Farlow,  Harvard  University,  pp.  129-152 
The  first  report  relating  to  algae  made  to  the  Board  of  Health, 

which  contains  botanical  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  blue-green 

algae  and  other  forms. 

A  portion  of  this  article  is  reprinted  on  another  page  (p.  39). 

The  Effect  on  Health  of  Certain  Algae  in  the  Mystic  Water  Supply. 

PP-  153-160 
A  series  of  replies  from  physicians  as  to  the  use  of  Mystic  Water. 
No  present  value. 

The  Drainage  of  Summer  Hotels  and  Country  Boarding  Houses. 

Mr.  Ernest  W.  Bowditch,  C.E.,  pp.  161-198 
An  interesting  discussion  of  the  pollution  of  country  wells,  with 
many  diagrams.    Very  little  present  value. 

Suggestions  on  Sewerage.  Mr.  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  C.E.,  pp.  199-238 
A  discussion  of  the  engineering  principles  involved  in  sewer  con- 
struction, starting  with  soil  borings  and  float  experiments  and  con- 
cluding with  descriptions  of  sewers,  sewer  sections,  etc.  A  valuable 
paper  for  present  day  students  to  consult,  as  many  reasons  for  failures 
are  given. 

1880    Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity 

The  Pollution  of  the  Deerfield  and  Millers  Rivers. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Hoyt,  C.E.,  pp.  1-2 1 
A  continuation  of  the  sanitary  surveys  of  the  waters  of  the  state. 

The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage. 

Mr.  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  C.E.,  pp.  23-44 
An  excellent  resume  of  the  principles  of  the  separate  system  of  sew- 
erage, then  coming  into  notice,  with  simple  illustrations. 


398  STATE  SANITATION 

Litermittent  Fever  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  J.  F.  A.  Adams,  pp.  45-108 

Reference  is  made  to  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes'  article  published 

in  1836,  and  an  account  given  of  the  recurrence  of  the  disease  (Malaria) 

in  New  England.    The  true  medium  of  the  spread  of  the  disease  was 

then  unknown,  and  various  theories,  all  erroneous,  were  being  discussed. 

School-house  Sanitation.     Mr.  Ernest  C.  Bowditch,  C.E.,  pp.  109-147 
A  sanitary  survey  of  a  number  of  schools,  some  of  them  broader  in 
scope  than  the  buildings  themselves,  involving  studies  of  environment, 
the  preparation  of  sanitary  maps,  etc. 

Epidemic  of  Cholera  Morbus  in  Adams,  in  Jime,  1880. 

Dr.  J.  F.  A.  Adams,  pp.  149-163 

Supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  public  water  supply. 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Holyoke.      E.  W.  Bowditch,  C.E.,  pp.  167-176 
Interesting  chiefly  for  the  diagrams  showing  the  relative  sanitary 
conditions  in  the  different  wards  in  the  city. 

Neglect  of  Vaccination.  Dr.  Z.  B.  Adams,  pp.  177-194 

A  discussion  of  the  value  of  vaccination  and  a  plan  for  making  it 
more  generally  applicable. 

1881 

Third  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy 
and  Charity 

(No  supplement  to  this  report  was  issued  this  year,  but  merely  a 
special  sanitary  appendix,  which  contained  the  following  papers). 

Circular  from  the  Health  Department  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Limacy  and  Charity  on  Drainage,  etc.  pp.  1 07-1 16 

A  circular  relating  to  cesspools  and  drains.    Of  no  present  value. 

The  Worcester  Sewage  and  the  Blackstone  River.  Dr.  Charles  F. 
Folsom,  Joseph  P.  Davis,  C.E.,  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,pp.  117-133 
A  report  of  a  committee  containing  a  comparison  of  various  possible 
methods  of  sewage  treatment  and  recommending  intermittent  down- 
ward filtration  upon  an  area  so  large  that  the  land  may  be  used  for 
growing  crops. 

Project  for  the  Purification  of  the  Sewage  of  Worcester. 

George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  pp.  134-146 
Colonel  Waring,  acting  for  the  town  of  Millbury,  which  is  on  the 
river  below  Worcester,  presented  a  report  recommending  a  separate 
system  of  sewers,  screening,  subsidence,  aeration,  a  flow  through  ten 
miles  of  ditches  at  a  low  velocity  and  application  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-six  acres  of  wooded  swamp  land.  Estimates  of  cost  were  made 
by  Phineas  Ball,  S.  C.  Heald,  and  Amos  Pike. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  399 

Report  upon  Metropolitan  Drainage. 

E.  S.  Chesborough,  C.E.,  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Dr.  Charles  F.  Folsom, 
A.  W.  Boardman,  C.E.,  and  Dr.  Azel  Ames,  Jr.,  pp.  147-159 

An  important  document,  being  the  report  of  a  legislative  committee 
which  laid  the  foundations  for  the  present  metropolitan  system  of 
sewers. 

The  conclusion  of  the  report  was  as  follows:  That  a  metropolitan 
district  system  be  recommended,  which  we  believe  should  include  the 
entire  territory  naturally  draining  into  Boston  inner  harbor;  a  system 
of  intercepting  sewers  and  branches  to  be  supplemented,  where  found 
advisable,  by  irrigation  or  intermittent  downward  filtration  works; 
and  a  Board  of  Commissioners  to  plan,  carry  out,  and  manage  the 
works,  and  to  make  the  apportionment  of  taxes  necessary  to  pay  for 
the  same,  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  Governor  and  Council. 
We  believe  that  the  system  recommended  would  preserve,  so  far  as  is 
practicable  by  general  sewerage,  the  purity  of  the  water  supply  of  the 
cities  included  in  this  district. 

1882    Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity 

Adulteration  of  Food.  Professor  S.  P.  Sharpies,  pp.  1-86 

An  extensive  treatment  of  the  methods,  chemical  and  microscopical, 
used  to  detect  adulterations  in  many  kinds  of  food,  with  a  bibliog- 
raphy. A  valuable  paper  for  students  of  food  analysis,  but  of  no 
present  interest  to  the  general  reader. 

Our  Eyes  and  Our  Industries.  Dr.  B.  Joy  Jeffries,  pp.  87-117 

A  general  discussion  emphasizing  the  dangers  of  eye-strain  and 
defective  vision,  and  urging  that  greater  attention  be  given  to  the  care 
of  the  eyes. 

Leprosy  as  Related  to  P*ublic  Health. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  1 19-139 
A  general  discussion. 

Reports  of  the  Water  Boards,  Commissioners,  and  Companies  of 
Massachusetts.  pp.  141-223 

A  compilation  of  water  works  statistics  upon  a  uniform  basis  in 
accordance  with  an  act  of  legislature  passed  in  1879  requiring  triennial 
returns.  The  questionnaire  used  is  given  on  page  146,  a  summary  of 
the  statistics  on  page  212. 

The  Sewerage  of  Nahant.  pp.  227-248 

A  plan  for  a  sewerage  system.  It  contains  sketches  of  various 
devices  used  for  cleaning  sewers,  such  as  mirrors,  hinged  rakes,  etc. 


400  STATE  SANITATION 

1883  Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity 

Tubular  Wells  and  Wells  in  General  as  a  Source  of  Water  Supply 
for  Domestic  Purposes.  /.  C.  Hoadley,  C.E.,  pp.  1-36 

A  paper  describing  the  geology  and  hydraulics  of  underground 
waters,  with  an  account  of  experiments  made  at  Maiden,  Mass.,  on 
the  lines  of  flow  and  the  circles  of  influence  around  a  driven  well. 
References  are  also  made  to  the  well  supply  of  Berlin. 

The  Sanitary  Condition  of  SomerviUe.  Dr.  John  F.  Couch. 

An  account  of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  Somerville  as  found  by  the 
local  board  of  health. 

Trichinosis.  pp.  177-189 

A  summary  of  recent  investigations  of  the  subject. 

Certain  Questions  Relative  to  the  Sewerage  and  Sanitary  Condition  of 
Nantucket.  pp.  191-209 

Containing  a  report  by  Ernest  C.  Bowditch,  C.E. 

Arsenic  as  a  Domestic  Poison. 

Professor  Edward  S.  Wood,  pp.  211-267 
An  extended  study  of  the  prevalence  of  arsenic  in  articles  intended 
for  domestic  use,  the  form  in  which  it  is  present,  its  danger  to  health 
and  measures  of  prevention.  In  particular  a  study  was  made  of  wall 
paper,  actual  samples  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  report.  An 
important  contribution  to  a  subject,  not  now  considered  to  be  of  great 
moment. 

1884  Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 

Lunacy  and  Charity 
Sanitary  Conditions  of  School  Buildings  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  D.  F.  Lincoln,  pp.  1-94 
Results  of  a  detailed  study  of  school  buUdings  in  twenty-five  cities 
and  towns,  illustrated  by  twenty-two  plans. 

The  Relation  of  Illuminating  Gas  to  Public  Health. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  247-274 
This  paper  treats  of  the  composition  of  illuminating  gas,  the  dan- 
gerous character  of  carbonic  oxide,  and  remedies  for  the  prevention  of 
accidents.     There  are  several  tables  showing  the  numbers  of  deaths 
from  illuminating  gas  in  different  cities. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Poisonous  Effects  of  Coal  and  Water  Gas. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick  and  Professor  William  Ripley  Nichols, 

pp.  275-313 

An  important  contribution  to  the  subject  embodying  the  results  of 

experiments  upon  animals.  Parts  of  this  paper  are  reprinted  on  page  47. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  401 

Epidemic  Cholera.  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  315-340 

A  statistical  study  of  the  occurrence  of  cholera  in  Massachusetts 
from  1847  to  1884,  and  an  account  of  the  epidemic  in  Boston  in  1849. 
Reference  is  made  to  Koch's  discovery  of  the  comma-bacillus,  the 
cholera  germ  in  July,  1884.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  references  to 
the  modern  germ  theory  of  disease  to  be  found  in  the  reports  of 
the  Board. 

Rules  are  given  for  the  prevention  of  the  disease. 

Disinfection.  pp.  341-354 

Reprint  of  a  report  on  the  subject  made  by  a  committee  of  the 
American  Public  Health  Association. 

Sanitary  Relations  of  Taunton.  Dr.  E.  V.  Jones,  pp.  335-369 

A  brief  sanitary  survey.    Unimportant. 

1885    Supplement 

Supplement  to  the  Seventh  Annual  Report  oj  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity 

Malaria  in  Eastern  Massachusetts.  Dr.  Z.  B.  Adams,  pp.  1-25 

Description  of  an  epidemic  of  malaria  in  Framingham  in  1885,  and 

a  discussion  of  prevailing  ideas  as  to  the  cause  of  the  disease.    A  map 

is  given  showing  standing  water  and  its  relation  to  the  occurrence  of 

the  disease. 

An  interesting  article  in  the  light  of  modern  knowledge  on  the 

subject. 

Disposal  of  Sewage  at  the  Massachusetts  Reformatory,  at  Concord. 

William  Wheeler,  C.E.,  pp.  193-208 
Description  of  the  project  proposed,  which  included  tankage,  sludge 
pits,  and  broad  irrigation. 

Case  of  Lead  Poisoning.  Dr.  Frederick  W.  Jones,  pp.  209-213 

A  case  at  South  Ashburnham  said  to  be  due  to  use  of  water  delivered 
through  lead  pipe. 

Reports  of  the  Water  Boards,  Commissioners,  and  Companies  of 
Massachusetts.  pp.  215-282 

Third  triennial  report  of  statistics  of  Water  Works. 

General  Index  of  the  Health  Supplements  to  the  Annual  Reports  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health,  Limacy  and  Charity,      pp.  283-348 

General  Index  of  Chapters  and  Other  Material  Relative  to  Public 
Health  Contained  in  the  Seven  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board. 

PP-  349-357 


402  STATE  SANITATION 

1886 

Eighteenth  Annual  Report 

Transmission  of  Infectious  Diseases  through  the  Medium  of  Rags. 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Withington,  pp.  1-69 
The  following  section  headings  will  give  an  idea  of  the  scope  of  this 
paper:   i.   Introductory.    2.   Commercial  and  Industrial.    3.   History 
of  Sanitary  Regulations.    4.   The  Recorded  Evidence  as  to  the  carry- 
ing of  Disease  by  Rags.    5.   Personal  Investigations. 

The  author  concluded  that  a  few  diseases,  such  as  smallpox,  could 
be  conveyed  by  rags,  that  on  the  whole,  not  many  diseases  were  thus 
spread,  that  domestic  rags  were  more  dangerous  than  foreign  rags,  and 
that  in  any  event  seasonal  precautions  shoiild  be  taken. 

Manual  for  the  Use  of  Boards  of  Health  of  Massachusetts. 

PP-  233-322 
Contains  a  codified  list  of  the  statutes  relating  to  the  Public  Health 
and  the  Decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts  relating  to 
the  same. 

Rules  and  Regulations  Relative  to  the  Inspection  of  Food  and  Analysis 
of  Food  and  Drugs.  pp.  323-327 

1887 

Nineteenth  Annual  Report 

Sewage  Disposal  at  Medfield,  Mass. 

Frederick  Brooks,  C.E.,  pp.  97-110 
Treatment  of  trade  wastes  at  a  straw  factory  by  application  to  land. 

Report  on  Oleomargarine.  pp.  197-289 

A  general  view  of  the  subject,  inspection  of  establishments  where 
oleomargarine  was  being  made,  protection  afforded  by  laws,  national, 
state,  and  local. 

The  Healthfulness  of  Oleomargarine  as  an  Article  of  Food. 

Dr.  Elliott  G.  Brackett,  pp.  248-279 
A  comprehensive  discussion  of  the  scientific  aspects  of  the  subject. 
The  general  conclusions  were  favorable  to  the  use  of  oleomargarine  as 
food,  but  as  a  food  distinct  from  butter  and  made  recognizable. 

The  Ventilation  of  Schoolrooms  Heated  by  Stoves. 

Dr.  J.  D.  Pinkham,  pp.  313-361 

Contains  diagrams  of  many  schoolrooms  in  Lynn,  and  results  of 

ventUation  tests.     The  latter  included  temperature,  humidity,  and 

carbonic  acid  determinations  made  at  different  hours  through  the  day. 

The  results  are  shown  by  diagrams. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  403 

1888 

Twentieth  Annual  Report 

Trichinae  in  Swine.     Professor  E.  L.  Mark  of  Harvard  University, 

pp. 111-134 

A  paper  describing  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  cause  of  infection  of 

swine  with  Trichinae.     It  is  of  interest  in  that  the  most  probable 

causes  are  said  to  be  uncooked  garbage  containing  swine  flesh  and  rats. 

Of  two  the  former  is  regarded  as  the  more  important. 

The  Sale  and  Use  of  Opium  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  B.  H.  Hartwell,  pp.  135-158 
A  report  of  an  investigation  undertaken  in  compliance  with  a  legis- 
lative act  passed  in  1888  after  there  had  been  an  expose  of  opium  joints 
in  Boston.  Data  are  given  for  the  imports  of  opium,  together  with  the 
opinions  of  many  physicians  as  to  the  use  of  the  drug,  and  the  forms 
in  which  it  appears. 

The  Number  and  Distribution  of  Micro-organisms  in  the  Air  of  the 
Boston  City  Hospital.  Greenleaf  R.  Tucker,  pp.  159-229 

This  was  one  of  the  earliest  bacteriological  investigations  published 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health.  It  is  interesting  not  only  for  the  results 
obtained,  but  from  the  use  of  the  "  aerobioscope,"  devised  in  con- 
junction with  Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick. 

An  abstract  of  this  report  is  given  on  page  65. 

Returns  of  Water  Boards  and  Water  Companies  of  Massachusetts. 

pp.  301-3 1 1 
A  summary  of  statistics  in  continuation  of  previous  reports. 

1889 

Twenty-first  Annual  Report 

Report  of  Investigations  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Pollu- 
tion of  Ice  Supplies.  pp.  143-223 

This  investigation  was  made  in  compliance  with  a  legislative  act 
(Chap.  84  of  the  Resolves  of  1888).  It  was  a  comprehensive  study  of 
the  subject,  with  the  latest  and  best  analytical  methods  used.  The 
tables  of  water  and  ice  analyses  (pp.  155-223)  are  given  in  a  form  which 
is  still  used  and  in  addition  to  the  determinations  made  several  years 
before  we  now  find  statements  as  to  turbidity  and  sediment,  a  mmieri- 
cal  statement  of  color,  and  quantitative  studies  of  algae,  fungi,  animal 
forms  and  bacteria. 

This  report,  except  the  tables,  is  printed  in  full  on  pages  77-85. 

Intermittent  Fever  in  Massachusetts.     Dr.  C.  H.  Cook,  pp.  245-284 
A  study  of  the  occurrence  of  malaria  in  the  state,  based  on  the 
replies  to  circulars  received  from  the  physicians  of  the  state. 


404  STATE  SANITATION 

Physique  of  Women  in  Massachusetts. 

Professor  H.  P.  Bowditch,  pp.  285-304 
A  continuation  of  the  author's  investigation  on  the  growth  of  chil- 
dren.   Among  the  data  collected  were  records  of  height  and  weight, 
rates  of  sitting  height  to  total  height  (average  =  53  per  cent),  stretch 
of  arms  in  per  cent  of  total  height  (average  =  100.54  per  cent),  etc. 

This  paper  is  especially  valuable  for  the  statistical  methods  used. 
The  "  percentile  grades  "  are  employed  to  illustrate  certain  facts. 

The  Influenza  Epidemic  of  1889-go. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  305-383 
This  paper  contains  a  history  of  the  disease  and  the  prevailing 
opinions  as  to  its  cause,  as  well  as  a  statistical  study  of  the  epidemic 
in  Massachusetts. 

Apparently  it  started  in  Russia  in  October,  1889.  In  November,  it 
was  prevalent  in  Berlin,  Vienna  and  Paris;  in  December,  in  London. 
It  appeared  in  New  York  about  December  20,  and  in  Massachusetts 
soon  afterwards.  It  was  a  very  severe  epidemic,  the  death-rate  for  the 
state  from  this  cause  being  estimated  (1889-90)  as  120  per  100,000. 
About  25  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  state  was  attacked  (there 
were  850,000  cases) .  Bronchitis  and  pneumonia  followed  in  the  train  of 
"  la  grippe."  The  conclusion  was  that  while  aerial  transmission  may 
have  been  a  factor  a  more  important  factor  was  "  human  intercourse." 
This  today  would  be  called  "  contact." 
The  paper  is  of  great  value,  but  is  too  long  to  be  reproduced. 

An  Inquiry  Relative  to  the  Conditions  which  Attended  an  Unusually 
High  Rate  of  Mortality  in  Lawrence  in  1889,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Diphtheria.  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  387-415 

The  chief  interest  in  this  paper  today  lies  in  the  mortality  statistics 
of  the  city,  from  1848  to  1889,  given  on  page  395,  and  the  remarks 
appended  to  the  table.  Apparently  the  death-rates  as  given  in  the 
Registration  Reports  were  computed  on  the  basis  of  census  populations, 
no  estimates  being  made  for  the  populations  in  the  intermediate  years. 
A  table  of  corrected  figures  is  therefore  given.  The  paper  should  be 
consulted  by  students  of  water  filtration  in  connection  with  the  pos- 
sible influence  of  filtration  on  the  general  death-rate.  Lawrence,  like 
other  cities  of  the  state,  suffered  from  influenza  in  1889,  which  was  just 
before  the  water  filter  was  installed. 

Reference  is  made  to  the  various  insanitary  conditions  existing  in 
the  city. 

1890 

Twenty-second  Annual  Report 

Suggestions  as  to  the  Selection  of  Sources  of  Water  Supply. 

Frederic  P.  Stearns,  pp.  333-371 

This  paper  relates  especially  to  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  obtained 

from  catchment  areas  under  various  circumstances.    It  covers  both 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  405 

surface  waters  and  ground  waters.  It  outlines  the  general  principles 
used  in  balancing  rainfall,  stream-flow,  storage,  evaporation,  and 
such  factors  and  because  of  its  importance  is  reprinted  in  part  on 
page  106. 

The  topics  discussed  are  as  follows:  Quantity  of  Surface  Water 
(p.  336),  Quantity  of  Ground  Water  (p.  352),  QuaUty  of  Surface 
Water  (p.  364),  Quality  of  Ground  Water  (p.  366). 

The  Growth  of  Children,  Studied  by  Galton's  Method  of  Percentile 
Grades.  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  pp.  477-522 

This  is  an  application  of  a  new  statistical  method  to  the  data  of  the 
growth  of  children  obtained  by  the  author  in  1877. 

A  portion  of  the  paper,  without  the  tables  and  with  only  a  few  of  the 
many  diagrams,  is  given  on  page  119. 

Typhoid  Fever  in  its  Relation  to  Water  Supplies. 

Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  pp.  523-543 

Historically  this  is  an  important  paper  as  it  shows  the  relation 
between  the  occurrence  of  typhoid  fever  and  polluted  water.  It 
relates  the  events  that  led  up  to  the  improvements  of  the  water 
supplies  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence. 

An  abstract  of  this  paper  is  given  on  page  131. 

1890 

Part  I  of  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage 

The  Chemical  Examination  of  Waters  and  the  Interpretation  of 
Analyses.     Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  Chemist  of  the  Board, 

pp.  516-578 

The  first  section  of  this  paper  describes  the  methods  of  water 
analyses  under  the  following  heads:  Collection  of  samples  (p.  519), 
Free  and  albuminoid  ammonia  (p.  523),  Organic  Nitrogen  (p.  526), 
Nitrogen  as  Nitrites  (p.  527),  Nitrogen  as  Nitrates  (p.  528),  Chlorine 
(p.  528),  Residue  on  Evaporation  and  Loss  on  Ignition  (p.  529), 
Hardness  (p.  531),  Odor  (p.  531),  Color  (p.  531),  Turbidity  and 
Sediment  (p.  532). 

In  the  second  section  the  principles  of  the  interpretation  of  water 
analyses  are  discussed,  first  in  a  general  way  and  then  as  related  to 
each  determination.  The  general  principles  are  set  forth  at  length. 
The  paper  should  be  consulted  for  these  details,  but  a  more  condensed 
report,  published  in  the  1892  report,  is  given  in  full  on  page  218. 

The  topics  in  the  remainder  of  the  paper  were  these: — Normal  and 
polluted  surface  waters  (p.  539),  chlorine  (p.  542),  albuminoid  am- 
monia (p.  545),  free  ammonia  (p.  550),  nitrogen  as  nitrites  and  nitrates 
(p.  556),  residue  on  evaporation  (p.  564),  turbidity  and  sediment 
(p.  566),  color  (p.  566),  odor  (p.  567),  ground  waters  (p.  569). 


4o6  STATE  SANITATION 

Report  upon  the  Organisms,  Excepting  the  Bacteria,  Found  in  the 
Waters  of  the  State,  July,  1887  to  June,  1889. 

G.  H.  Parker,  Biologist,  pp.  579-620 

This  paper  is  interesting  historically  as  being  the  first  attempt  to 
show  by  quantitative  methods  the  relation  between  microscopic 
organisms  and  odors  in  drinking  waters.  The  methods  of  enumeration 
were  crude,  but  the  general  conclusions  were  nevertheless  sound.  The 
following  topics  were  discussed:  Methods  of  examination  (p.  583), 
The  relation  of  organisms  and  odors  in  Natural  Waters  (p.  583), 
Organisms  found  in  the  Water  supplied  to  Boston,  Charlestown  and 
Cambridge  (p.  587),  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Organisms  (p.  597), 
Distribution  of  Organisms  in  Waters  variously  situated  (p.  601), 
Purification  of  Water  rendered  Impure  by  Organic  Growths  (p.  609), 
Growth  of  Sponges  in  Water  Supplies  (p.  614). 

Summary  of  Water  Supply  Statistics,  also  Records  of  Rainfall,  Flow 
of  Streams,  and  Temperatures  of  Air  and  Water. 

Frederic  P.  Stearns,  C.E.,  pp.  621-676 

The  first  portion  of  this  report  comprises  statistics  of  rainfall,  etc., 
in  Connection  of  previous  records.  On  page  660  temperatures  of  the 
water  in  various  reservoirs  are  given,  on  page  663  there  is  a  compari- 
son of  air  and  water  temperatures  at  different  seasons,  and  on  page  665 
a  detailed  study  of  the  temperatures  of  the  water  in  Jamaica  Pond  at 
different  depths.  On  page  67 1  there  is  a  section  on  the  temperature  of 
ground  waters  and  on  page  673  a  record  of  the  temperature  of  the 
water  as  delivered  to  consumers. 

A  Classification  of  the  Drinking  Waters  of  the  State,     pp.  677-716 

This  is  a  most  important  paper:  it  shows  the  application  of  Dr. 
Drown's  principles  of  the  interpretation  of  chemical  analyses  to  the 
water  supplies  of  the  state. 

The  use  of  the  normal  chlorine  map  is  described.  (This  part  of  the 
report  is  reprinted  on  page  139.) 

The  surface  waters  of  the  state  are  grouped  first  according  to  the 
excess  of  chlorine  above  the  normal  and  second  according  to  the  al- 
buminoid ammonia.  The  relation  between  these  substances  and  the 
other  items  of  the  analyses  to  the  known  conditions  as  to  the  pollution 
of  the  watersheds  is  then  shown. 

The  ground  waters  are  then  considered  and  grouped  not  only 
according  to  excess  of  chlorine,  but  to  the  excess  of  total  nitrogen 
above  a  certain  average  quantity  (namely  0.221  parts  per  million) 
found  in  the  unpolluted  ground  waters.  The  ratio  between  the  chlorine 
excess  and  the  nitrogen  excess  is  also  computed. 

The  paper  is  one  which  may  very  profitably  be  consulted  by  students 
of  water  analysis.  Unfortunately  it  is  too  long  to  be  reproduced  in  the 
present  volume. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  407 

Discussion  of  Special  Topics  Relating  to  the  Quality  of  Public  Water 
Supplies.       Frederic  P.  Stearns  and  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown, 

pp.  717-782 

This  paper  is  virtually  a  study  of  the  storage  of  water  and  the 
influence  of  storage  on  quality.  The  influence  of  storage  in  open 
reservoirs  on  surface  water  is  discussed  on  page  720,  and  that  on 
ground  waters  on  page  725.  Then  follows  a  section  on  the  storage  of 
ground  waters  in  open  reservoirs  and  tanks. 

On  page  734  the  effect  of  long  storage  in  large  reservoirs  or  ponds  is 
treated,  color  and  organic  matter  receiving  particular  attention. 

The  section  on  the  effect  of  storage  upon  the  taste  and  odor  of  sur- 
face waters  is  reprinted  on  page  144. 

On  page  749  begins  a  discussion  of  deep  ponds,  with  an  elaborate 
account  of  stagnation  phenomena.  The  conditions  in  Jamaica  Pond 
were  described  and  illustrated  by  tables  and  diagrams. 

Interesting  characters  of  certain  water  supplies  of  the  state  are  given 
on  page  767,  et  seq.  and  finally  on  page  773,  there  is  a  section  on  the 
filtration  of  water  in  filter  galleries  and  an  account  of  troubles  with 
Crenothrix. 

The  Pollution  and  Self-Purification  of  Streams. 

Frederic  P.  Stearns,  pp.  783-802 

The  first  part  of  this  paper  is  printed  on  page  156. 

The  second  part  relates  to  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  certain 
rivers,  such  as  the  Blackstone  and  Merrimack  above  and  below  some 
of  the  more  important  points  of  pollution. 

Index.  pp.  803-857 

Attention  is  called  to  this  as  an  unusually  complete  index. 

1890 

Part  II  of  Report  on  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage 
Filtration  of  Sewage  and  Water.       Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  pp.  1-704 

Without  question  this  is  the  most  important  paper  on  the  purifica- 
tion of  sewage  and  water  ever  published  in  the  United  States.  It 
describes  the  original  investigations  made  at  the  Lawrence  Experi- 
mental Station.  On  account  of  its  length  a  part  only  is  reprinted 
(p.  172). 

After  describing  the  experimental  plant  and  the  object  of  the  work 
(p.  5)  an  account  of  the  methods  of  recording  the  analyses  and  inter- 
preting the  results  is  given.  Then  follows  an  elaborate  discussion  of 
the  results  obtained  from  the  various  tanks,  with  elaborate  tables. 
As  an  example  a  partial  index  is  given  of  the  headings  which  relate  to 
one  tank,  i.  e.,  Filter  Tank  No.  i,  started  January  10,  1888,  and  still 
in  operation  (191 5). 


4o8  STATE  SANITATION 

Physical  characteristics  pp.  14 

First  application  of  sewage  15 

Beginning  of  nitrification  18 

Progress  of  sewage  through  sand  indicated  by  chlorine  18 

Effect  of  frost  upon  the  effluent  21 

First  effects  of  nitrification  22 

General  results  of  filtration  through  the  first  winter  22 

Purification  by  nitrification  continued  23 

Effect  of  increased  quantity  23 

Condition  of  the  surface  24 

Regimen  essential  to  success  25 

Nitrification  in  winter  27 

Increased  nitrification  in  the  spring  29 

More  complete  nitrification  the  second  year  29 

Relation  of  suspended  matter  to  matter  in  solution  34 

Mineral  constituents  of  sewage  and  effluents  37 

Comparison  of  winter  result  with  that  of  year  38 

Comparison  of  results  of  two  years  39 

Storing  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  sand  40 

Removal  of  stored  nitrogen  by  nitrification  43 

Quality  of  efiiuent  at  different  hours  of  the  day  45 

Microscopical  examinations  of  efiiuent  47 

Bacteria  in  efiiuent  51 

Proof  that  bacteria  came  down  through  the  sand  of  this  tank  56 
The  greatest  number  of  bacteria  came  through  with  the  sewage 

first  applied  after  an  intermission  57 

General  conclusions  in  regard  to  management  58 

Bacteria  found  in  sand  at  different  depths  59 

More  than  five  hundred  pages  of  the  report  are  devoted  to  similar 
records  of  the  other  tanks,  and  to  the  tables  and  diagrams. 

On  page  577  is  a  summary  of  the  results  reprinted  in  part  on  page 

The  experiments  on  the  intermittent  filtration  of  water  are  described 
on  pages  601-665.  These  are  of  less  interest  than  the  experiments  on 
sewage  purification. 

On  pages  666-669  is  an  account  of  experiments  on  purification  of 
sewage  by  chemical  precipitation  by  Allen  Hazen,  Chemist  in  charge. 

Pages  670-704  contain  a  record  of  additional  results  of  filtration  of 
sewage  and  water  obtained  in  1890. 

Rainfall  and  evaporation  records  are  given  on  pages  702-704. 

A  Report  of  the  Chemical  Work  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station, 
Including  Methods  of  Analysis  and  Some  Investigations  of  the 
Process  of  Nitrification. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown  and  Allen  Hazen,  pp.  705-734 
Critical  studies  of  the  methods  of  determining  nitrogen  in  its  various 
forms,  total  residue  and  loss  on  ignition,  chlorine,  oxygen  consumed, 
dissolved  oxygen,  alkalinity  are  given. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  409 

Then  follows  (p.  724)  a  study  of  nitrogen  in  filters,  nitrification  and 
the  factors  which  influence  it.    The  following  is  a  resume  of  the  results. 

In  the  foregoing  comparisons  and  experiment,  showing  the  effect  of 
the  storage  of  surface  and  ground  waters  in  distributing  reservoirs  and 
tanks,  we  find  that  surface  waters  may  be  so  stored  without  deteriorat- 
ing in  quality;  and  at  one  place  (Lawrence)  there  is  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  the  water,  owing  to  the  storage  and  subsequent 
passage  through  pipes  to  the  consumers.  The  state  does  not  contain 
any  good  examples  of  surface  waters  stored  in  covered  reservoirs;  but 
it  seems  probable  that,  under  such  conditions,  water  containing  many 
algae  might  become  worse  owing  to  their  death  when  deprived  of  Ught. 

With  ground  waters  the  case  is  entirely  different,  as  the  water  at  the 
source  is  free  from  organisms,  and  it  only  needs  to  be  kept  so  in  order 
to  be  delivered  to  the  consumer  in  satisfactory  condition.  The  com- 
parisons show  that  the  ground  water  does  not  deteriorate  when  the 
light  is  excluded;  ^  but  that  it  does  when  exposed  to  the  light,  except 
in  some  instances  where  the  water  is  stored  in  iron  tanks  which  receive 
only  a  limited  amount  of  light.  It  seems  hardly  safe,  however,  in  view 
of  the  unfavorable  effect  of  storing  ground  water  in  the  high-service 
tank  at  Brookline,  to  rely  upon  these  apparent  exceptions  to  the  rule; 
and  it  is  better  in  all  cases  to  keep  a  ground  water  in  the  dark. 

Report  of  Experiments  upon  the  Chemical  Precipitation  of  Sewage. 

Allen  Hazen,  pp.  735-791 
This  paper  gives  the  results  of  a  series  of  carefully  prepared  experi- 
ments.   A  part  of  the  paper  is  printed  on  page  188. 

A  Report  of  the  Biological  Work  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick,  pp.  793-862 

This  report  comprised  the  following  sections: 

Micro-organisms  pp.  796 

Methods  of  microscopical  analysis  799 

New  methods  (Sedgwick-Rafter  Method)  803 

Methods  of  bacteriological  analysis  811 

The  microscopical  organisms  in  sewage  815 

The  bacterial  organisms  in  sewage  819 

Certain  species  of  bacteria  in  sewage  (Jordan)  821 
Biological  phenomena  observed  in  the  intermittent  filtration  of 

sewage  845 
Variations  in  bacterial  composition  of  certain  effluents  after  an 

application  of  sewage  849 

The  passage  of  bacteria  through  certain  sand  filters  850 
Effect  of  application  of  bouillon,  peptone,  salt,  sugar,  ammo- 
nium chloride,  and  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  bacterial  discharge 

from  the  filters  855 

1  These  statements  are  not  true  of  imperfectly  filtered  surface  waters,  as  they 
are  frequently  affected  by  growth  of  Crenothrix  which  thrives  better  in  the  dark 
than  in  the  light. 


4IO  STATE  SANITATION 

Micro-organisms  in  the  filtration  of  water  and  in  the  chemical 

purification  of  sewage  pp.  859 

Biological  aspects  of  the  theory  of  intermittent  filtration  859 

Investigations  upon  Nitrogen  and  the  Nitrifying  Organism. 

Edwin  0.  Jordan  and  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  pp.  863-881 
An  important  bacteriological  study  incident  to  the  main  work  at 
Lawrence. 

Index.  pp.  885-910 

Attention  is  called  to  the  complete  index. 

1891 

Twenty-third  Annual  Report 
Examination  of  Spring  Waters.  pp.  351-369 

A  report  upon  the  quality  of  the  spring  waters  publicly  sold  in  the 
state.  Each  spring  is  described.  Analyses  are  given  and  the  springs 
are  grouped  according  to  the  excess  of  chlorine  above  the  normal. 

On  the  Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  Contained  in  Waters  of  Ponds 
and  Reservoirs  at  Different  Depths. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  371-381 
A  study  of  stagnation  in  Jamaica  Pond,  Lake  Cochituate  and  else- 
where.   The  data  are  valuable. 

The  Effect  of  the  Aeration  of  Natural  Waters. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  383-394 
A  series  of  laboratory  experiments  from  which  the  following  con- 
clusions were  drawn: 

1.  The  oxidation  of  organic  matter  in  water  is  not  hastened  by 
vigorous  agitation  with  air  or  by  air  under  pressure. 

2.  The  aeration  of  water  may  serve  a  useful  purpose,  by  preventing 
stagnation,  by  preventing  the  excessive  growth  of  algae,  by  removing 
from  water  disagreeable  gases,  and  by  the  oxidation  of  iron  in  solution. 

The  Microscopical  Examination  of  Water. 

Gary  N.  Calkins,  pp.  395-421 
A  description  of  the  Sedgwick-Rafter  method  with  a  discussion  of 
sources  of  error. 

The  Differentiation  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever. 

George  W.  Fuller,  pp.  635-644 
A  bacteriological  investigation  from  which  the  following  conclusions, 
important  at  the  time,  were  drawn: 

1 .  After  prolonged  investigation,  it  has  been  found  that  it  is  possible 
to  separate  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever  from  all  other  bacteria 
hitherto  encountered  in  the  water  of  the  Merrimack  River. 

2.  The  potato  method  of  differentiation  is  for  this  organism  of  no 
diagnostic  value. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  411 

3.  The  three  tests  which  have  been  found  to  be  highly  characteristic 
of  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever  are  (after  non-liquefaction):  (i)  non- 
coagulation  of  milk ;  (2)  non-formation,  or  formation  of  a  very  slight 
amount,  of  acid  in  milk;  (3)  production  of  a  turbidity,  without  gas, 
in  the  Smith  test. 

On  Uroglena.  Gary  N.  Calkins,  pp.  645-657 

A  carefully  made  and  valuable  study  of  an  organism  that  has  caused 
much  trouble  in  Massachusetts  water  supply.  The  article  is  illustrated 
with  three  beautifully  colored  plates. 

On  the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Certain  Causes  of  Death  in 
Massachusetts.  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  757-874 

An  elaborate  and  very  thorough  study  of  the  distribution  of  measles, 
scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  smallpox,  typhoid  fever,  cholera  infantum, 
phthisis  and  pneumonia. 

The  following  important  topics  are  considered: 

1.  Population  of  the  state,  its  distribution  and  density  by  counties 
(pp.  765  and  769). 

2.  Vital  statistics  of  the  state  (p.  768). 

3.  General  death-rates  of  counties,  cities,  and  towns  (p.  771). 

4.  Statistics  of  measles  (p.  780). 

5.  "  "  scarlet  fever  (p.  789). 

6.  "  "  diphtheria  and  croup  (p.  798). 

7.  "  "  smallpox  (p.  8ic). 

8.  "  "  typhoid  fever  (p.  819). 

9.  "  "  cholera  infantum  (p.  83c). 

10.  "  "  consumption  (p.  844). 

11.  "  "  pneumonia  (p.  855). 

12.  Conclusions  (p.  866). 

The  influence  of  the  following  conditions  were  considered: 

1 .  Natural  Conditions.  —  Such  as  the  conditions  of  climate  (tem- 
perature, rainfall,  humidity,  prevailing  winds),  elevation  above  sea 
level,  distance  from  sea,  character  of  the  soil  (dryness  of  moisture). 

2.  Artificial  Conditions.  —  Density  of  the  population,  purity  of 
water  supply,  efficiency  of  sewerage  system  and  sewage  disposal, 
sufficiency  and  purity  of  food  supply,  and  especially  of  milk,  protec- 
tion from  accidents,  management  and  prevention  of  infectious  diseases, 
freedom  of  intercommunication,  especially  among  children,  efficiency 
of  municipal  sanitation. 

3.  Character  of  the  Population.  —  Race  and  nationality,  distribu- 
tion by  sexes  and  ages,  occupation,  education,  social  condition  as  to 
poverty  or  wealth,  habits,  size  of  families,  etc. 

The  paper  is  illustrated  by  maps.    The  tables  are  given  in  details. 
It  may  be  well  taken  as  a  model  for  students  to  follow  in  studying 
vital  statistics. 


412  STATE  SANITATION 

1892 

Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report 

The  Interpretation  of  Water  Analyses. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  317-330 

This  is  one  of  the  classic  papers  on  the  subject.  It  is  printed  in  full 
on  page  218,  et  seq. 

On  the  Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  Contained  in  the  Water  of 
Ponds  and  Reservoirs  at  Different  Depths  in  Winter,  Under  the 

Ice.  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  331-342 

A  continuation  of  the  study  of  stagnation  begun  the  previous  year. 
The  data  are  valuable. 

On  the  Mineral  Contents  of  Some  Natural  Waters  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  343-351 
Analyses  are  given  for  various  ground  waters  and  waters  naturally 
filtered.    The  data  are  valuable. 

A  Study  of  Odors  Observed  in  the  Drinking  Waters  of  Massachusetts. 

Gary  N.  Calkins,  pp.  353-379 

A  statistical  study  of  the  causes  of  the  odors  of  the  drinking  waters 
of  the  state,  with  special  reference  to  the  effect  of  microscopic  organ- 
isms.    The  following  conclusions  were  drawn: 

We  have  now  arrived  at  certain  definite  theories  concerning  the 
causes  of  odors  in  drinking  waters,  namely,  that  they  may  be  produced 
by  the  putrefactive  decomposition  of  the  body  plasm  through  the 
agency  of  bacteria;  by  the  excretion  of  certain  products  of  growth,  or 
by  the  liberation  of  products  by  the  physical  disintegration  of  the 
body  or  breaking  down  of  the  enclosing  cell  walls.  These  three  causes 
give  rise  to  three  classes  of  odors,  as  follows:  (i)  odors  of  chemical  or 
putrefactive  decomposition,  (2)  odors  of  growth  and  (3)  odors  of 
physical  disintegration. 

In  regard  to  the  specific  cause  of  an  odor  of  growth  or  disintegration, 
all  evidence  seems  to  point  to  the  importance  of  oil  globules,  it  being 
assumed  that  these  are  odorous,  as  are  the  odor-giving  oils  of  some  of 
the  higher  plants.  In  Uroglena,  Bursaria  and  Cryptomonas  we  notice 
a  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  odor,  just  as  we  do  in  the  case  of  the 
violet,  rose  and  heliotrope. 

The  paper  is  illustrated  by  a  colored  plate. 

The  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Microscopical  Organisms  in  Surface 
Waters.  Gary  N.  Calkins,  pp.  381-390 

A  discussion  of  the  subject  illustrated  by  diagrams. 

Some  Physical  Properties  of  Sands  and  Gravels,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Their  Use  in  Filtration.  Allen  Hazen,  pp.  539-556 
This  paper  is  printed  in  full  on  page  232. 


.  SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  413 

Report  upon  Artificial  Ice.  pp.  589-598 

A  study  of  the  chemistry  of  the  artificial  freezing  of  water,  from 
which  the  following  conclusions  were  drawn: 

1.  Artificial  processes  of  freezing  concentrate  the  impurities  of  the 
water  in  the  inner  core  or  the  portion  last  frozen. 

2.  The  impurities  are  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms  by  the  use  of 
distilled  water  (condensed  steam)  for  the  manufacture  of  ice. 

3.  The  number  of  bacteria  in  artificial  ice  is  insignificant,  under  the 
prevailing  methods  of  manufacture. 

4.  The  amount  of  zinc  found  in  the  samples  of  melted  artificial  ice 
under  observation  is  insufficient  to  injure  the  health  of  persons  using 
such  ice. 

Investigation  of  Recent  Epidemics  of  Tjrphoid  Fever  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick,  pp.  665-704 

This  is  an  elaborate  report  of  the  famous  typhoid  fever  epidemics 
which  occurred  in  the  Merrimack  valley  in  1890-91.  Lowell  and  Law- 
rence were  the  principal  cities  concerned.  The  length  of  the  paper  and 
its  frequent  mention  in  the  modern  literature  of  sanitation  preclude  its 
publication  in  full  in  this  volume.  The  following  topics  illustrate  the 
breadth  of  the  investigation: 

The  Lowell  epidemic  in  1890-91  pp.  668 

Five  systems  of  water  supply  in  LoweU  671 

Conditions  to  be  fulfilled  by  any  water-infection  theory  of  the 

epidemic  678 

Discovery  of  the  probable  cause  of  the  epidemic  679 

The  canal-water  theory  685 

The  milk  supply  of  Lowell  687 

Results  of  the  investigation  688 

The  Lawrence  epidemic  in  1890-91  692 

Typhoid  fever  in  the  cities  of  the  Merrimack  vaUey  during  five 

years,  1888-93  694 

An  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  in  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  New- 

buryport  in  1892-93  701 

An  Investigation  of  an  Outbreak  of  Tjrphoid  Fever  in  Chicopee  FaUs 
apparently  due  to  Infected  Water  Supply. 

George  V.  McLauthlin,  pp.  705-714 

An  interesting  study  of  a  small  typhoid  outbreak  by  a  brilliant 
young  scientist  made  shortly  before  his  untimely  death. 

An  Investigation  of  an  Epidemic  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  the  City  of 
Springfield  in  July  and  August,  1892,  due  to  Infected  Milk. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick  and  Dr.  Walter  H.  Chapin,  pp.  715-725 

An  important  report,  —  one  of  the  earliest  investigations  of  a  "milk 
epidemic." 


414  STATE  SANITATION 

An  Investigation  of  an  Epidemic  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  Somerville,  due 
to  Infected  Milk.       Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick,  pp.  726-731 

An  important  example  of  a  well  studied  "  milk  epidemic." 

Investigations  of  Epidemics  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  Bondsville,  Province- 
town,  and  MiUville,  apparently  due  to  Secondary  Infection. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick,  pp.  732-742 

An  interesting  study  of  a  phase  of  the  subject  new  at  the  time. 

1893 

Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report 

On  the  Amount  and  Character  of  the  Organic  Matter  in  Soils  and  its 
Bearing  on  the  Storage  of  Water  in  Reservoirs. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  383-398 

This  study  was  made  in  anticipation  of  the  construction  of  the  great 
storage  reservoir  above  Clinton.  Its  object  was  to  determine  whether 
the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  was  likely  to  injure  the  quality  of  the 
water,  and  if  so  the  extent  to  which  it  should  be  removed.  After 
drying  the  loss  on  ignition,  the  carbon,  nitrogen,  albuminoid  ammonia, 
free  ammonia,  and  oxygen  consumed  were  determined.  Extraction 
experiments  were  also  made.  The  methods  are  described  and  the 
results  given  in  a  series  of  tables.  The  general  conclusions  were  as 
follows: 

"  It  may  be  said  that  the  effect  of  the  organic  matter  in  these  various 
soils  on  the  water  in  contact  with  them  is  simply  a  question  of  its 
amount,  and  that  its  origin  and  composition  seem  to  be  without 
marked  influence.  The  watershed  from  which  the  samples  were  taken 
is  very  sparsely  populated,  and  the  organic  matter  in  aU  cases  is 
mainly  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  we  need 
only  concern  ourselves  with  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  a  soil  of 
this  character  in  determining  the  necessity  of  its  removal,  and  as  a 
provisional  standard  we  may  perhaps  fix  1.5  to  2  per  cent  of  organic 
matter  as  determined  by  the  loss  on  ignition  of  the  sample  dried  at 
100°  C,  as  the  permissible  limit  of  organic  matter  that  may  be  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  a  reservoir." 

The  Filter  of  the  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Lawrence  and  its 
Results.  Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  pp.  543-560 

This  was  the  first  scientifically  designed  filter  in  the  United  States. 
In  several  respects  it  was  unique  and  not  aU  of  the  ideas  have  been 
followed  in  later  works.  It  was  an  open  filter  of  the  slow  sand  type, 
and  was  put  in  operation  September  20,  1893. 

This  paper  describes  the  filter  and  contains  a  plan  of  it.  It  also 
gives  typhoid  statistics  for  Lawrence  before  and  after  the  filter  was 
started.  The  concluding  paragraph  is  interesting,  as  it  shows  the  con- 
fidence resulting  from  the  experimental  work  and  this  first  installation. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  415 

The  study  of  this  problem  and  its  solution  have  estabUshed  with 
more  of  certainty  than  ever  before  three  important  points  in  sanitary 
science : 

1.  The  insufficiency  of  the  self -purification  of  streams. 

2.  The  ready  conveyance  of  typhoid  fever  down  a  stream  by 
sewage-polluted  drinking  water. 

3.  The  practicability  of  protecting  a  community  against  an  infected 
drinking  water  supply  by  natural  sand  filtration. 

Chemical  Precipitation  of  Sewage  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, Chicago,  1893.  Allen  Hazen,  pp.  595-624 

Mr.  Hazen,  having  been  granted  a  leave  of  absence  from  the  Law- 
rence Experiment  Station  went  to  Chicago  and  made  the  investigation 
here  described. 

The  sewage  of  the  exposition  grounds  amounted  to  about  2.5 
million  gallons  per  day.  As  a  protection  of  the  lake  shore,  as  an  object 
lesson  to  visitors  and  as  a  scientific  experiment  the  sewage  was  treated 
chemically  in  large  iron  tanks.  The  chemicals  used  were  copperas, 
lime,  alum  and  ferric  sulphate.  It  was  found  that  copperas  and  lime 
produced  a  sludge  more  easily  pressed  than  that  resulting  from  the  use 
of  alum. 

The  paper  gives  the  analytical  data,  the  cost  and  efficiency  of  the 
processes  used. 

Isolation  Hospitals  for  Infectious  Diseases. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  689-737 

This  paper  was  written  in  response  to  a  demand  for  information  in 

regard  to  the  advantages  of  isolation  hospitals  and  the  best  methods  of 

arranging  them.     An  appendix  contains  data  relating  to  European 

practice. 

1894 

Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report 

The  Composition  of  the  Water  of  Deep  Wells  in  Boston  and  Vicinity. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  421-431 
A  paper  giving  the  chemical  analyses  of  samples  of  deep  well  waters, 
some  of  them  more  than  one  thousand  feet  deep. 

The  Bacterial  Contents  of  Certain  Ground  Waters  Including  Deep 
Wells. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick  and  S.  C.  Prescott,  pp.  433-443 
Contains  chemical  analyses  and  bacterial  counts  of  well  waters. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Sands  with  Special  Reference  to 
the  Filtration  of  Water.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  701-710 

The  studies  here  described  were  made  in  continuation  of  those  of 
Allen  Hazen  (24th  report,  p.  539).  The  conclusions  were  that  cal- 
culations of  rates  of  flow  and  losses  of  head  should  be  made  after  the 
sand  had  been  compacted.  Values  of  the  coefficient  c  are  given  for 
different  conditions. 


41 6  STATE  SANITATION 

Reports  upon  Experiments  in  Feeding  Hogs  at  a  State  Institution 
where  Trichinosis  among  the  Swine  had  been  Unusually  Preva- 
lent. Professor  E.  L.  Mark,  pp.  757-762 
A  short  paper  showing  the  effect  of  feeding  uncooked  swine  flesh  to 

hogs. 

On  an  Epidemic  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  Marlborough  apparently  due  to 
Infected  Skimmed  Milk. 

Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick,  pp.  763-774 
An  important  epidemiological  study,  showing  a  method  of  trans- 
mission of  this  disease  hitherto  unsuspected,  namely,   the  use  of 
infected  skimmed  milk. 

1895 

Twenty-seventh  Annual  Report 

The  Hardness  of  Water  and  the  Methods  by  which  it  is  Determined. 

Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  pp.  433-442 
A  description  of  Clark's  "  Soap  Method,"  and  Hehner's  "  Acid 
Method,"  with  tables  of  the  hardness  of  some  Massachusetts  waters 
as  determined  by  both  methods. 

Methods  Employed  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  for  the 
Quantitative  Determination  of  Bacteria  in  Sewage  and  Water. 

George  W.  Fuller  and  William  R.  Copeland,  pp.  583-598 
The  topics  treated  are: 

1.  Collection  and  storage  of  samples. 

2.  Preparation  of  culture  media. 

3.  Sterilization  and  storage  of  culture  media. 

4.  Technique  of  plating. 

5.  Technique  of  counting  colonies  of  bacterial  on  plates. 

6.  Effect  of  length  of  period  of  cultivation  and  of  temperature  at 
which  cultivation  takes  place. 

7.  Comparison  of  the  relative  values  of  gelatine  and  glycerine  agar 
for  quantitative  bacterial  work. 

8.  Roll  cultures  in  four-Uter  bottles. 

Report  upon  the  Production  and  Use  of  Antitoxin.  pp.  687-708 

A  series  of  circulars  describing  the  advantages  of  the  use  of  anti- 
toxin and  the  extent  to  what  it  was  being  used  in  the  state.  A  labora- 
tory had  been  established  in  October,  1894  in  charge  of  Dr.  J.  L. 
Goodale,  but  as  the  work  became  more  extended  Dr.  Theobald  Smith 
was  appointed  pathologist  in  charge  of  the  department. 

1896 

Twenty-eighth  Annual  Report 

A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Toxin  Production  of  Diphtheria  Bacilli. 

Dr.  Theobald  Smith  and  Ernest  L.  Walker,  pp.  647-658 
This  paper  is  given  in  full  on  page  274,  et  seq. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  417 

Comparative  Study  of  Forty-two  Cultures  of  Diphtheria  Bacilli  and 
of  Four  Cultures  of  Pseudo-Diphtheria  Bacilli  from  Different 
Localities  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  Theobald  Smith  and  Ernest  L.  Walker,  pp.  659-672 
A  very  careful  bacteriological  study  of  the  cultural  characteristics 
and   their   toxin-producing  power.     The   toxin-producing  power  of 
bacilli  persisting  in  the  throat  after  recovery  was  also  studied. 

The  Vital  Statistics  of  Massachusetts,  1856-95,  —  a  Forty-Years' 
Summary.  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  711-829 

A  very  valuable  paper  prepared  in  Dr.  Abbott's  customary  thorough 
manner.    The  headings  of  the  paper  will  assist  the  reader  in  finding  the 
facts  reported. 
On  the  accuracy  of  the  material  collected  for  pubhcation  in  the 

Massachusetts  registration  reports  pp.  714 

Population  of  the  state  716 

Interstate  and  international  vital  statistics  722 

Marriages  724 

Fecundity  of  marriage  731 

Births  (still-births,  illegitimacy)  733 

Deaths  742 

Infant  mortality  752 

Cause  of  deaths  757 

Summary  of  special  causes  of  death  772 

Typhoid  fever  779 

Consumption  785 

Cancer  802 

Childbirth  804 

The  balance  of  mortality  812 

The  returns  of  medical  examiners  817 

Vital  statistics  of  cities,  1894  and  1895  821 

1897 

Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report 
(No  special  articles  were  published  in  this  report.) 

1898 

Thirtieth  Annual  Report 
An  Investigation  of  the  Action  of  Water  upon  Lead,  Tin,  and  Zinc. 

E.  W.  Clark,  pp.  539-585 
This  is  a  detailed  report  of  an  investigation  extending  over  two  years 
to  learn  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  action  of  various  waters  on  lead- 
pipe  and  the  relation  between  this  action  and  lead  poisoning. 

Many  analyses  are  given  showing  the  relation  between  the  presence 
of  lead  and  the  color  of  the  water,  chlorine,  hardness,  nitrogen  in  its 


41 8  STATE  SANITATION 

various  states  and  oxygen  consumed.  Experiments  were  also  made 
with  waters  containing  various  chemical  substances.  On  page  565 
the  relation  is  shown  between  lead  and  carbonic  acid  and  dissolved 
oxygen.  This  was  the  most  important  feature  of  the  paper.  On  page 
577,  methods  are  described  for  the  determination  of  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and 
copper.  This  portion  of  the  paper  was  prepared  with  the  assistance  of 
Mr.  F.  B.  Forbes. 

The  Vital  Statistics  of  Massachusetts  for  1897,  with  a  Life  Table 
Based  upon  the  Experience  of  the  Five-year  Period,  1893-97. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  pp.  797-827 
The  important  part  of  this  paper  is  the  life  table,  which  is  reprinted 
in  full  on  page  300,  et  seq. 

1899 

Thirty-first  Annual  Report 

The  Occurrence  of  Iron  in  Ground  Water  and  Experiments  upon 
Methods  of  Removal.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  535-553 

The  tables  of  water  analyses  in  this  paper  are  especially  valuable 
from  the  fact  that  they  give  for  many  ground  water  supplies  the  car- 
bonic acid  and  dissolved  oxygen. 

On  pages  539-553  are  given  the  results  of  experiments  made  at 
Provincetown,  Watertown,  Marblehead,  and  Reading. 

The  different  treatments  required  to  remove  iron  present  in  the 
forms  of  carbonate  and  sulphate  are  well  shown.  Aeration,  filtration 
through  sand,  coke  and  iron  strips,  and  chemical  treatment  with 
potassium  permanganate  and  lime  were  the  methods  tested. 

1900 

Thirty-second  Annual  Report 

Continuation  of  an  Investigation  on  the  Action  of  Water  upon  Metallic 
or  Metal-lined  Service  Pipes,  and  Methods  for  the  Separation 
and  Determination  of  Metals  in  Water. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  F.  B.  Forbes,  pp.  485-506 
This  paper  contains  the  results  of  determinations  of  lead,  zinc, 
copper  and  tin  in  water  flowing  through  pipes  in  ordinary  use  and  after 
standing  in  the  pipes. 

On  pages  498-506  are  given  the  results  of  studies  made  to  deter- 
mine the  accuracy  of  the  methods  of  analyses,  with  suggestions  as  to 
how  certain  errors  may  be  avoided. 

An  Investigation  in  Regard  to  the  Retention  of  Bacteria  in  Ice,  when 
the  Ice  is  Formed  imder  Different  Conditions. 

H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  507-524 

This  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  study  of  the  freezing  of  water. 

Experiments  were  made  by  freezing  sewage  and  sewage  diluted  with 

water  in  tanks.    Many  samples  of  ice  from  the  Merrimack  River  were 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  419 

analyzed  chemically  and  bacteriologically,  as  well  as  samples  of  ice 
from  various  ponds. 

A  summary  of  the  results  is  given  on  page  521.  It  was  found  that 
in  the  still  freezing  of  water  practically  all  impurities  are  excluded  from 
the  ice,  but  that  the  freezing  of  river  waters  does  not  always  offer 
adequate  safety  of  the  ice  and  the  same  is  true  of  snow  ice,  or  ice 
formed  by  the  freezing  of  water  which  has  flowed  over  the  ice  sheet. 

Studies  of  the  Efficiency  of  Water  Filters  in  Removing  Different 
Species.  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  525-535 

A  study  of  the  removal  of  B.  coli  and  B.  typhi  by  sand  filters.  It  was 
concluded  that  B.  coli  was  the  more  hardy  of  the  two  organisms. 

Examination  of  Spring  Waters.  pp.  537-585 

A  continuation  of  the  examination  made  in  1891.  Ninety-nine 
springs  were  examined.  Descriptions  and  analyses  are  given  for  each 
one.  They  are  grouped  according  to  excess  of  chlorine.  Great  fluctua- 
tions were  found  in  the  numbers  of  bacteria. 

Consumption  of  Water  in  Cities  and  Towns  in  Massachusetts. 

pp.  587-616 
An  important  tabulation  by  cities  and  towns  of  these  facts:  Year; 
population;  average  daily  consumption;  daily  consumption  per 
capita;  number  of  services;  per  cent  of  metered  services;  length  of 
distributing  pipes.  The  influence  upon  consumption  of  the  following 
factors  was  studied:  Age  of  works,  introduction  of  sewers,  introduction 
of  meters,  extent  of  manufacturing  hot  and  cold  weather.  Fluctua- 
tions in  consumption  are  also  considered. 

Statistics  of  Cancer  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  W.  F.  Whitney,  pp.  731-753 
Statistics  are  tabulated  by  sex  and  ages  for  each  five-year  period 
from  1850  to  1895  for  Massachusetts,  and  in  somewhat  less  complete 
form,  for  other  states. 

1901 

Thirty-third  Annual  Report 

Report  on  the  Experimental  Filtration  of  the  Water  Supply  of  Spring- 
field at  Ludlow,  Mass.,  from  December  21, 1900  to  January  31, 
1902.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  323-369 

Ludlow  Reservoir  water  had  been  notorious  for  its  summer  growths 
of  Anabaena.  These  experiments  were  undertaken  to  ascertain 
whether  it  was  feasible  to  filter  the  water  and,  if  so,  how.  The  follow- 
ing topics  were  discussed: 

Condition  of  the  water  during  the  experiments  pp.  325 

Filtration  of  the  reservoir  water  334 

Refiltration  of  reservoir  water  346 

Aeration,  dissolved  oxygen  351 

Experiments  with  canal  water  ,  ,  354 


420  STATE  SANITATION 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  work  as  given  by  Mr.  Clark. 

Studying  the  general  results  of  the  investigations  made  upon  the 
feasibility  of  sand  filtration  of  the  Ludlow  canal  water,  we  find  that  all 
three  filters  were  entirely  successful  in  removing  the  organisms  present 
in  the  water  applied.  The  odor  of  the  effluents  of  all  three  filters  was 
generally  very  slight,  and  at  times  the  effluents  were  entirely  odorless, 
although  during  the  last  week  in  July,  after  the  break  in  the  canal 
bank  by  the  side  of  Belcher  town  Reservoir  and  the  consequent  flow 
from  this  reservoir  into  the  canal  of  water  containing  Anabaena,  the 
effluent  of  each  filter  had  the  odor  of  this  organism.  Double  filtration, 
however,  would  probably  remove  this  odor  as  successfully  as  it  did  in 
the  case  of  the  reservoir  water. 

The  removal  of  color  and  organic  matter,  while  not  equal  at  all  times 
of  the  year  to  that  obtained  in  the  filtration  of  reservoir  water,  was  very 
good,  and  as  great  as  usually  expected  with  sand  filtration  of  surface 
waters  resembling  this  canal  water.  The  small  amount  of  suspended 
matter  in  the  canal  water  passed  to  these  filters  is  shown  by  the  few 
scrapings  of  the  surface  needed  during  the  period  of  operation. 

A  Study  of  the  Stability  of  the  Effluents  of  Sewage  Filters  of  Coarse 

Materials,    Including   Investigations    upon  Putrefaction    and 

Secondary  Decomposition.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  371-393 

Bottles  of  sewage  effluents  were  kept  for  many  days  and  analyzed  at 

frequent  intervals,  these  analyses  being  quite  complete.    The  data  are 

given  in  detail.    The  results  are  critically  discussed  and  summarized  on 

pages  389-393. 

Bacteriological  Studies  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Determination 
of  B.  coli.  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  395-420 

This  report  includes  the  following  studies: 

1 .  Changes  in  the  methods  for  the  detection  of  B.  coli  in  water  pp.  398 

2.  Review  of  routine  B.  coli  studies  400 

3.  Methods  for  the  differentiation  of  bacteria  407 

4.  Proposed  classification  of  bacteria  415 

5.  Description  of  species  419 

1902 

Thirty-fourth  Annual  Report 

On  the  Value  of  Tests  for  Bacteria  of  Specific  Types  as  an  Index  of 
Pollution.  H,  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  243-281 

Contains  summaries  of  tests  for  B.  coli  in  the  Merrimack  River  and 
Lawrence  water  supply,  with  comparisons  of  results  in  summer  and 
winter;  effect  of  storage  on  B.  coli;  tests  for  B.  coli  in  ground  waters. 
Summaries  of  B.  coli  tests  in  sea  water  and  shellfish  are  given.  There 
is  also  a  discussion  of  the  significance  of  B.  coli  and  other  bacteria  and 
a  comparison  of  B.  coli  and  B.  typhosus  as  affected  by  cold,  freezing, 
heat  and  sunlight.  The  general  conclusion  was  that  the  two  organisms 
behave  very  much  alike  under  adverse  conditions  of  living. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  421 

1903 

Thirty-fifth  Annual  Report 
(There  were  no  special  articles  in  this  report.) 

1904 

Thirty-sixth  Annual  Report 
(There  were  no  special  articles  in  this  report.) 

1905 

Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report 

Materials  Used  for  Service  Pipes  in  Massachusetts.       pp.  195-205 
A  statistical  summary  of  the  materials  used  for  service  pipes,  i.  e., 
wrought  iron,  galvanized  iron,  cement-lined,  lead,  lead-lined,  and  tin- 
lined,  the  number  of  services  in  each  case  being  given. 

Experiments  upon  the  Removal  of  Organisms  from  the  Waters  of 
Ponds  and  Reservoirs  by  the  Use  of  Copper  Sulphate. 

X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  207-287 
The  experiments  were  made  at  the  Arlington  Reservoir,  the  Belcher- 
town   Reservoir,   the   Lexington   Reservoir,   the   Quincy   Reservoir, 
Jamaica  Pond,  Crystal  Lake  in  Newton,  and  Massapoag  Lake  in 
Sharon. 

The  success  of  the  copper  treatment  of  water  containing  certain  blue- 
green  algae  and  protozoa  is  shown;  its  failure  in  the  case  of  other 
organism  is  pointed  out.  Caution  is  urged  in  regard  to  this  method  of 
treatment  on  account  of  the  danger  to  fish  and  the  poisonous  character 
of  the  chemical. 

Investigations  in  Regard  to  the  Use  of  Copper  and  Copper  Sulphate. 

H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  289-338 
The  experiments  described  are  of  considerable  interest.  Among  the 
topics  treated  are:  Description  of  Method  of  Determining  Copper, 
Copper  Existing  Naturally  in  Massachusetts  Waters,  Destruction  of 
Algae  by  Copper  Sulphate,  Absorption  of  Copper  Sulphate  by  Organic 
Matter,  Copper  and  Copper  Sulphate  as  a  Bacteriacide,  Experiments 
with  Metallic  Copper,  Comparison  of  Copper  Salts  with  other  Salts. 

Examination  of  Sewer  Outlets  and  of  Tidal  Waters  and  Flats  from 
which  Shellfish  are  Taken  for  Food. 

X.  E.  Goodnough,  pp.  411-426 
This  is  an  interesting  study  of  the  pollution  of  the  waters  and  flats  of 
Boston  harbor  by  the  sewage  of  Boston  and  vicinity  discharged  at 
Moon  Island,  Deer  Island,  and  Paddocks  Island.  Maps  are  given 
showing  results  of  chemical  analyses  (free  and  albuminoid  ammonia) 
at  various  places  and  at  different  depths.  Another  map  shows  the 
bacteriological  findings. 

The  conclusions,  being  of  especial  interest  to  the  people  of  Boston, 
are  printed  in  full  on  page  322. 


42  2  STATE  SANITATION 

Studies  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  on  the  Pollution  of 
Shellfish.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  427-457 

The  following  topics  were  treated:  Studies  of  Clams;  Examination 
of  the  various  portions  of  Shellfish  for  the  Detection  of  Infection; 
Studies  of  Digestion,  Sterilization  by  Heat;  Studies  of  Oysters; 
Destruction  of  Bacteria  in  Oysters  by  Cooking;  Studies  of  the  Joppa 
Clam  Flats  at  Newburyport;  Viability  of  B.  coli  in  Salt  and  Fresh 
Waters. 

Inspection  of  Dairies.  Dr.  Charles  Harrington,  pp.  517-526 

This  report,  except  the  tables,  is  printed  in  full  on  page  333,  ei  seq. 

A  Description  of  the  New  Antitoxin  and  Vaccine  Laboratory,  together 
with  a  Ten  Years'  Retrospect  of  the  Production  and  Distribution 
of  Diphtheria  Antitoxin.  Dr.  Theobald  Smith,  pp.  527-546 

The  first  part  of  the  paper  is  a  detailed  description  of  the  laboratory, 
located  on  the  grounds  of  the  Bussey  Institute  of  Harvard  University, 
near  the  Forest  Hills  Station,  illustrated  with  plans  and  photographs. 

There  follows  an  account  of  the  work  of  the  department  during  the 
first  ten  years  of  its  existence.  The  topics  specially  amplified  relate 
to  diphtheria  antitoxin,  tetanus  antitoxin,  and  vaccine  lymph.  The 
iatter,  in  particular,  is  referred  to  in  detail. 

1906 

Thirty-eighth  Annual  Report 

Significance  of  the  Numbers  of  Bacteria  in  Water  and  Sewage  Devel- 
oping at  Different  Temperatures.  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  325-349 
Comparisons  are  made  between  bacterial  counts  at  20°,  30°,  40°  and 
50°  C.  Ratios  between  these  counts  are  found  for  different  waters,  some 
polluted  and  some  not  polluted.  Ratios  between  bacteria  and  B.  coli 
are  given  for  the  Merrimack  River.  The  influence  of  Temperature, 
Oxygen  and  Dilution  upon  the  Bacterial  Contents  of  the  Merrimack 
River  are  considered.  The  bacterial  counts  at  different  temperatures 
are  used  to  show  the  efficiency  of  water  filters.  Acid-producing 
bacteria  are  compared  with  B.  coli.  The  results  of  incubation  tests  are 
given. 

A  Comparison  of  Methods  for  the  Determination  of  the  Alkalinity  of 
Ash.  Hermann  C.  Lythgoe,  pp.  41 1-4 14 

A  brief  statement  of  Method. 

Report  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  Factories,  Workshops,  and  Other 
Establishments.  Dr.  Charles  Harrington,  pp.  449-619 

An  important  report,  being  an  account  of  the  first  work  done  by  the 
Board  in  accordance  with  the  legislative  act  of  1905.  It  describes  in 
detail  various  industries  from  the  sanitary  standpoint.  The  textile 
industries,  the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  machinery,  the  chemical 
industries,  and  slaughtering  come  in  for  long  descriptions. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  423 

1907 

Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report 

Report  upon  the  Chemical  Examination  of  Drawn  and  Undrawn 
Poultry  Kept  in  Cold  Storage.  Dr.  William  F.  Boos,  pp.  263-282 
A  chemical  investigation  of  the  subject  of  ptomaines,  Bacillus 
botulinus,  as  well  as  a  practical  study  of  the  subject.  The  results  of 
many  experiments  are  given  in  detail.  The  general  conclusions  were 
as  follows: 

1.  In  cold  storage  itself  no  chemical  changes  occur.  This  is  shown 
by: 

(a)  The  absence,  after  nine  months  and  more  of  cold  storage,  in  both 
drawn  and  undrawn  cold-storage  fowl  of  ptomaines  and  decomposition 
products  in  general,  except  such  as  are  formed  by  bacteria  and  auto- 
lytic  changes  occurring  before  the  birds  are  placed  in  cold  storage  and 
after  they  are  thawed. 

{h)  The  negative  results  of  animal  inoculations  with  extracts 
obtained  from  the  two  kinds  of  poultry. 

2.  When  fowl  are  taken  out  of  cold  storage  and  exposed  to  a  tem- 
perature of  68°  F.,  the  conditions  of  exposure  being  the  same,  the 
undrawn  birds  show  better  keeping  qualities. 

3.  When  freshly  killed  fowl  are  exposed  at  68°  F.  under  conditions 
constant  for  all  the  birds  exposed,  the  birds  drawn  according  to  the 
method  described  above  show  perfect  keeping  qualities,  while  the 
undrawn  fowl  undergo  a  rapid  process  of  decomposition.  Under  these 
conditions  the  ordinarily  drawn  birds  show  fair  keeping  qualities, 
although  they  are  not  free  from  bacterial  decomposition. 

It  may  be  concluded,  therefore,  from  these  results  that  it  is  best  to 
draw  fowl  in  a  different  manner  from  that  usually  followed,  before 
they  are  placed  in  cold  storage.  After  removal  from  cold  storage,  the 
fowl  should  never  be  contaminated  by  soaking  in  watei',  but  should 
thaw  in  the  air.  Ordinary  drawing  is  worse  by  far  than  no  drawing 
at  all. 

Report  upon  the  Bacteriological  Examination  of  Drawn  and  Undrawn 
Poultry.  Herbert  R.  Brown,  pp.  285-336 

A  detailed  bacteriological  study.  The  following  conclusions  were 
drawn: 

1.  Poultry  kept  at  temperatures  ranging  from  +  5°  to  —  14°  F. 
undergo  no  decomposition  as  a  result  of  bacterial  activity. 

2.  Freezing  destroys  the  red  and  some  of  the  white  blood  corpuscles. 

3.  Freezing  temperatures  as  low  as  —  14°  F.  destroy  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  bacteria  present,  but  do  not  affect  the  more  resistant 
ones. 

4.  When  the  tissues  are  thawed,  they  become  moistened  by  the 
melting  ice  crystals,  and  in  this  condition  bacterial  growth  is  facili- 
tated and  decomposition  of  the  tissues  and  contents  of  the  cells  is 
promoted. 


424  STATE  SANITATION 

5.  In  the  drawn  chickens  placed  in  cold  storage  aerobic  conditions 
prevailed  throughout  the  pleuroperitoneal  cavities.  The  undrawn 
chickens  showed  much  smaller  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the  pleuro- 
peritoneal cavities.  On  account  of  the  closed  cavity,  partial  anaerobic 
conditions  prevailed  in  these  birds. 

In  decomposing  meats,  putrefactive  aerobic  bacteria  may  possibly 
produce  the  primary  stages  and  prepare  the  way  for  anaerobes  which 
possibly  control  the  intermediate  stages  of  decomposition.  By  the 
combined  action  of  both,  decay  is  brought  about,  but  it  is  probably 
finished  by  aerobic  bacteria. 

From  these  facts  it  appears  that,  given  the  aerobic  conditions  and 
the  larger  numbers  of  bacteria  growing  on  the  moist  surfaces  and 
tissues  of  a  thawed  drawn  chicken,  decomposition  will  proceed  at  a 
more  rapid  rate  than  with  an  undrawn  one  containing  fewer  bacteria 
existing  under  partial  anaerobic  conditions. 

6.  In  freshly  killed,  unfrozen  drawn  chickens,  the  surfaces  and 
tissues  become  dry  within  a  very  short  time,  and,  although  aerobic 
conditions  prevail,  the  bacteria  cannot  grow  because  of  lack  of  moisture. 

7.  In  freshly  killed,  unfrozen  and  undrawn  chickens,  on  account  of 
the  closed  pleuroperitoneal  cavities  there  is  no  drying  of  the  tissues 
and  surfaces,  and  facultative  aerobic  and  anaerobic  bacteria  from  the 
intestines  rapidly  cause  decomposition. 

8.  By  the  removal  of  the  viscera  without  the  spilling  of  the  contents 
of  the  alimentary  tract  decomposition  can  be  prevented  absolutely. 
The  operation  requires  about  two  minutes. 

9.  Briefly  stated,  decomposition  depends  largely  upon  the  presence 
of  moisture  in  the  tissues,  for  moisture  is  absolutely  essential  to  bac- 
terial growth.  In  freshly  killed  birds,  ordinarily  or  properly  drawn, 
the  surfaces  quickly  become  dry.  In  cold-storage  birds,  no  matter  how 
they  are  drawn,  the  tissues  will  be  moist,  because  of  the  melting  of  the 
crystals  of  ice.  If  properly  drawn,  there  would  be  but  few  bacteria 
present  capable  of  causing  decomposition. 

The  Infantile  Mortality  of  Boston,  June  i-November  30,  1907. 

Dr.  Donald  Gregg,  pp.  401-413 
A  study  of  the  deaths  of  infants  distributed  by  wards,  by  season,  by 
feeding,  etc. 

Report  upon  the  Growth  of  Pathogenic  Bacteria  in  Milk. 

Herbert  R.  Brown,  pp.  415-437 

A  study  of  the  growth  of  B.  typhosus,  the  paratyphoid  bacillus,  the 

hog-cholera  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of  dysentery,  the  diphtheria  bacillus, 

etc.,   under  different  conditions.     The  folio-wing  conclusions  were 

drawn: 

I.  Bacillus  typhosus,  paratyphoid,  hog  cholera,  bacillus  dysenteriae 
(Shiga)  and  bacillus  diphtheriae  can  all  grow  in  milk,  but  the  last  grows 
the  poorest  of  the  five  when  placed  under  the  optimum  conditions  of 
temperature. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  425 

2.  All  species  grow  less  luxuriantly  at  room  temperature  than  at 
36°  C. 

3.  Exposure  to  low  temperatures  (5.6°  to  6.7°  C.)  causes  no  appre- 
ciable destruction  of  bacteria  during  the  first  forty-eight  hours,  and 
there  may  even  be  some  multiplication  of  the  more  vigorous  individuals 
of  all  five  species.  Continued  exposure  for  three  weeks  causes  a  rapid 
destruction  of  the  individual  bacteria  most  susceptible  to  the  low 
temperature. 

4.  Bacillus  typhosus  produces  an  acid  reaction  in  milk  early  in  its 
development.    The  milk  remains  normal  in  appearance. 

5.  Bacillus  hog  cholera  and  the  paratyphoid  bacillus  produce  an 
initial  rise  in  acidity,  which  is  followed  by  alkali  production  as  an  end 
product.  The  milk  assumes  a  primary  opalescent  appearance,  which 
later  on  is  changed  to  a  translucence  due  to  alkaline  reaction  and 
probable  peptonization  of  the  proteids  present. 

6.  Bacillus  dysenteriae  produces  a  slight  initial  rise  in  acidity,  which 
is  followed  by  a  return  to  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction.  The  milk 
remains  normal  in  appearance. 

7.  Exposure  of  bacillus  typhosus  to  —  1.1°,  —  12.2°,  17.8°  and 
21.1"  C.  for  fourteen  days  did  not  kill  all  the  bacteria  of  any  one  tube, 
for  growth  always  ensued  when  the  culture  was  placed  in  favorable 
environment. 

1908 

Fortieth  Annual  Report 

A  Review  of  Twenty-One  Years  Experiments  upon  the  Purification  of 
Sewage  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  251-538 
A  most  important  paper.    The  subject  matter  is  indexed  under  the 
head  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  in  the  third  volume.  A  part 
of  this  Review  is  reprinted  on  page  341. 

1909 

Forty-first  Annual  Report 

Disposal  and  Purification  of  Factory  Wastes  or  Manufacturing  Sewage. 

H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  339-403 
An  important  paper  giving  the  result  of  much  experimental  work. 
The  subject  matter  is  indexed  under  the  head  of  the  Lawrence  Experi- 
ment Station, 

The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Mtmicipal  Refuse. 

X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  405-421 
An  important  paper  which  treats  of  the  following  topics:  Classifica- 
tion of  municipal   refuse  (p.  407),  sources,  separation,  methods  of 
collection  (p.  408),  quantity  of  refuse  (p.  410),  methods  of  disposal 
(p.  412),  cremation  (p.  419). 


426  STATE  SANITATION 

A  Study  of  Some  of  the  Spore-bearing  Anaerobic  Bacteria  in  Market 
Milk.  Herbert  R.  Brown,  pp.  632-667 

An  extended  bacteriological  study  of  samples  of  milk  purchased 
from  small  stores  in  Boston  and  vicinity.  The  methods  used  are 
first  described  (pp.  633-643),  and  then  are  given  descriptions  of  seven- 
teen different  organisms  studied.  On  page  666  is  given  a  long  list  of 
references. 

1910 
Forty-second  Annual  Report 

Studies  of  the  Relative  Corrosion  of  Metal  Pipes  by  Waters,  especially 
before  and  after  Purification.    Review  of  Literature  on  Corrosion. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  287-310 
The  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  relating  principally  to  "  rusty 
water  troubles."  The  effect  of  hot  and  cold  water  is  discussed  (p.  291), 
and  that  of  dissolved  oxygen  on  page  292.  A  review  of  the  literature  is 
given  on  page  295.  Theories  of  corrosion  are  discussed  on  page  299, 
and  methods  of  prevention  on  page  307. 

191 1 

Forty-third  Annual  Report 

Experiments  upon  the  Disinfection  of  Sewage  and  Effluents  from 
Sewage  Filters. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  339-364 
This  paper  is  indexed  under  the  head  of  the  Lawrence  Experiment 
Station. 

1912 

Forty-fourth  Annual  Report 

Studies  of  Fish  Life  and  Water  Pollution. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  George  O.  Adams,  pp.  336-345 
The  results  of  experiments  to  show  the  effect  on  small  fish  of  sewage, 
diluted  sewage,  and  various  sewage  effluents.  The  effect  of  dissolved 
oxygen,  nitrates,  iron,  etc.,  is  referred  to  (p.  341).  The  consumption 
of  oxygen  by  fish  life  (p.  342),  the  solution  and  diffusion  of  oxygen  in 
water  (p.  343)  and  the  liberation  of  oxygen  by  algae  (p.  344)  are  studied. 

A  Study  of  the  Efficiency  of  Certain  Methods  for  the  Sanitary  Control 
of  Swimming  Pools. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  346-367 

A  general  study  of  various  swimming  pools,  notably  those  at  An- 

dover  and  Lawrence  (p.  351),  Worcester  (p.  365),  and  Cambridge 

(p.  366).    Bacterial  counts  and  B.  coli  results  are  given. 

A  Study  of  the  Hygienic  Condition  of  the  Air  in  Textile  Mills  with 

Reference  to  the  Influence  of  Artificial  Humidification. 

H.  W.  Clark  and  Stephen  de  M.  Gage,  pp.  659-692 

The  following  topics  were  considered:  Influence  of  the  condition  of 

the  air  upon  health  and  comfort  (p.  662),  respiratory  diseases  in  textile 

cities  (p.  664),  factors  influencing  the  health  of  textile  operatives 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  427 

(p.  667),  artificial  humidification  (p.  670),  air  in  spinning  and  weaving 
rooms  (p.  676),  air  in  picker  and  carding  rooms  (p.  681),  air  in  other 
wool  manufacturing  processes  (p.  684),  effect  of  humidifiers  on 
bacteria  and  molds  (p. 


Fecal  Contamination  of  Roller  Towels. 

Henry  N.  Jones,  pp.  549-552 
A  brief  statement  giving  results  of  tests  for  B.  coli,  Staphylococci 
and  other  organisms. 

The  Occurrence  of  Infantile  Paralysis  in  Massachusetts. 

Dr.  Mark  W.  Richardson,  pp.  555-561 
Certain  facts  and  observations  of  an  unusual  nature  in  the  experi- 
ence of  Massachusetts  with  infantile  paralysis  are  here  set  forth,  to- 
gether with  a  discussion  of  their  possible  significance.  This  article 
is  published  in  full  on  pages  350-365,  and  with  it  an  article  by  Dr. 
M.  J.  Rosenau  and  one  by  Dr.  John  F.  Anderson  and  Dr.  Wade  H. 
Frost  on  the  agency  of  stomoxys  calcitrans  in  the  spread  of  infantile 
paralysis. 

1913 
Forty-fifth  Annual  Report 

Further  Experiments  on  Poliomyelitis. 

Dr.  M.  J.  Rosenau,  pp.  535-557 
Experiments  with  the  stable-fly  described  in  detail. 

Experiments  to  Determine  Paralyzed  Domestic  Animals  and  those 
Associated  with  Cases  of  Infantile  Paralysis  may  Transmit  that 

Disease.  Dr.  Carl  Ten  Broeck,  pp.  558-577 

The  experiments  are  described  in  detail,  the  results  showed  that  "  in 

no  case  do  the  monkeys  inoculated  from  any  of  these  animals  show  any 

signs  of  a  paralysis  or  symptoms  which  would  indicate  that  they  were 

infected  with  poliomyelitis." 

A  Study  of  an  Epidemic  of  Infantile  Paralysis  Occurring  in  the  South- 
em  Connecticut  Valley  during  the  Year  1912. 

Dr.  James  V.  W.  Boyd,  pp.  578-601 
An  epidemiological  study.     Refers  to  paralysis  among  birds  and 
horses.    The  cases  are  classified  in  various  ways. 

1914 

Forty-sixth  Annual  Report 

Disposal  of  Sewage  in  the  South  Metropolitan  Sewerage  District, 

including  report  of  the  Chief  Engineer. 

X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  361-400 
This  report  relates  chiefly  to  an  extension  of  the  system  so  as  to 
include  the  sewage  of  Wellesley  and  Needham,  but  various  data  are 
given  for  other  places  in  the  Charles  River  Valley. 


428  STATE  SANITATION 

The  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis,  an  Address  to  the  State  Inspectors 
of  Health  of  Massachusetts.  Hiram  F.  Mills,  pp.  701-722 

A  valuable  statistical  summary,  with  map,  showing  the  decrease  in 
tuberculosis  between  igo8  and  191 2  in  different  parts  of  the  state. 

The  Protection  and  Maintenance  of  the  PubUc  Health  during  and 
subsequent  to  a  Great  Conflagration. 

Dr.  William  C.  Hanson,  pp.  739-743 
An  account  of  the  measures  taken  to  safeguard  the  public  health 
at  the  time  of  the  Salem  Fire. 

The  Early  Diagnosis  of  Lead  Poisoning. 

Dr.  Harry  Linenthal,  pp.  743-749 
A  critical  study  of  thirteen  cases  of  lead  poisoning. 


II.    ABSTRACTS  OF  SPECIAL  REPORTS 

1889 

Sewerage  of  the  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sewerage  of  the  Mystic 
and  Charles  River  Valleys. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  January,  1889,  pp.  1-36 
In  1887  the  legislature  had  asked  the  Board  to  report  on  the  general 
drainage  and  sewerage  of  the  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys, 
including  the  best  method  of  disposal.  This  comprehensive  study 
resulted.  Abstracts  of  the  report  are  printed  at  some  length  on  pages 
86-105.  The  general  scheme  here  recormnended  was  adopted  and 
is  now  in  use  under  the  name  of  the  North  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
System.  The  portions  of  the  report  not  reprinted  included  additional 
experiments  on  the  flow  of  water  and  sewage  through  peat  and  detailed 
statements  relating  to  the  cities  and  towns  to  be  included  in  the  district. 
The  report  contains  maps  and  profiles. 

Report  of  Consulting  Engineer.  Joseph  P.  Davis,  pp.  37-40 

A  general  report  approving  the  project  recommended. 

Report  of  the  Engineer.  Howard  A.  Carson,  C.E.,  pp.  41-84 

Contains  the  results  of  the  surveys  and  estimates  of  cost. 

Report  upon  Disposal  by  Chemical  Precipitation. 

Charles  H.  Swan,  C.E.,  pp.  11 2-1 20 
The  best  location  for  works  of  this  type  was  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Mystic  River.    Detailed  estimates  of  cost  were  given. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  Frederic  P.  Stearns,  pp.  85-1 11 

This  report  covered  the  following  points:  The  capacity  of  the  Boston 
Main  Drainage  Works  (p.  85),  Operation  of  the  Main  Drainage 
Works  with  reference  to  the  Outlet  (p.  97),  Methods  of  providing 
sewerage  systems  for  each  city  and  town  within  the  district  (p.  99), 
Independent  systems  for  cities  and  towns  (p.  106),  Estimates  of  cost 
(p.  no). 

Report  on  Absorption  of  Water  upon  Saugus  Marshes. 

Frederick  Brooks,  C.E.,  page  121 
Detailed  descriptions  of  the  experiments  referred  to  in  the  main 
report.     Interesting  as  showing  the  impossibility  of  using  peat  for 
sewage  filtration. 


430  STATE  SANITATION 

1894 

Improvement  of  Charles  River 

Report  of  the  Joint  Board  Consisting  of  the  Metropolitan  Park  Com- 
mission and  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Improvement  of 
the  Charles  River  from  the  Waltham  Line  to  the  Charles  River 
Bridge. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  WalcoU,  Chairman,  April,  1894,  pp.  i-xxii 

This  report  because  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  the  people  of 
Boston  and  the  Metropolitan  District  is  printed  in  full,  with  a  few 
details  omitted,  on  pages  249-259. 

The  project  of  the  Charles  River  Basin  had  been  considered  in  1891. 
There  were  many  advocates  and  opponents.  This  report  carried  great 
weight  and  led  to  the  immediate  undertaking  of  the  project. 

Report  of  the  Engineer.  Frederic  P.  Stearns,  pp.  1-32 

The  following  topics  which  were  considered  indicate  the  compre- 
hensiveness of  the  investigation  upon  which  the  report  was  founded: 
Present  condition  of  the  river  (p.  i),  sanitary  examination  (pp.  6  and 
14),  methods  of  improvement  (p.  9),  proposed  dam  (p.  12),  effect  upon 
navigation  (p.  17),  effect  upon  the  harbor  (p.  18),  effect  upon  sewerage 
systems  (p.  23),  effect  upon  ground  water  in  filled  lands  (p.  26),  effect 
upon  marshes  (p.  28),  relation  to  storm  water  (p.  28),  possible  shoaling 
(p.  30),  and  cost  (p.  30). 

Report  of  the  Landscape  Architects. 

Messrs.  Olmstead  and  Eliot,  pp.  33-43 
A  general  discussion  followed  by  statements  concerning  three  sec- 
tions of  the  project.  The  Fresh  Water  Section,  from  the  Waltham  line 
to  the  Watertown  Bridge,  the  Marsh  Section,  from  the  Watertown 
Bridge  to  Cottage  Farm,  and  the  Basin  Section,  from  Cottage  Farm  to 
the  Craigie  Bridge. 

Appendix  i.   Freshet  Flow  of  the  Charles  River. 
Appendix  2.   Charles  River  Bridge. 
Appendix  3.   Ground  water  in  filled  lands. 

1895 

Metropolitan  Water  Supply 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  a  Metropolitan  Water 
Supply.  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  pp.  9-21 

This  report  is  reprinted  in  full  on  page  260,  et  seq. 

Report  of  the  Consulting  Engineer.   Joseph  P.  Davis,  C.E.,  pp.  34-36 
A  short  report  approving  the  plan  recommended  by  the  Board. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  Frederic  P.  Stearns,  pp.  1-148 

A  comprehensive  report  giving  the  results  of  the  investigations  made 

and  a  description  of  the  works  recommended  for  a  Metropolitan 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  431 

supply  of  water.    The  Metropolitan  District  was  taken  to  be  the  cities 
and  towns  within  ten  miles  of  the  State  House. 
The  following  were  the  main  subjects  considered: 

1.  Statistics  and  estimates  relating  to  the  water  supply  of 

the  Metropolitan  District  as  a  whole.  pp.  3 

2.  A  statement  of  the  present  condition  of  the  water  supply  of 
each  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  district,  prefaced  by  some 
remarks  regarding  sources  of  water  supply  in  general.  14 

3.  An  outline  of  the  plan  recommended  for  taking  an  ad- 
ditional water  supply  from  the  Nashua  River.  67 

4.  A  financial  statement  with  regard  to  the  existing  water 
works  of  the  district.  80 

5.  A  statement  with  regard  to  each  city  and  town  in  the  dis- 
trict, as  to  whether  it  should  obtain  its  water  supply  independently 

or  as  a  part  of  the  district.  85 

6.  A  statement  regarding  sources  investigated  but  not  recom- 


mended. 


103 


7.  A  detailed  description  of  the  works  recommended,  both 
for  bringing  water  to  the  Metropolitan  District,  and  for  distrib- 
uting it  to  the  cities  and  towns  within  the  district,  including 
estimates  of  cost.  125 

As  is  now  well  known,  the  Nashua  River  was  selected  as  the  source 
of  the  Metropolitan  Supply.  Among  the  sources  studied  but  not 
recommended  were  the  Merrimack  River  (p.  103),  Lake  Winnipisogee 
(p.  108),  Charles  River  (p.  in),  Shawsheen  River  (p.  113),  Ipswich 
River  (p.  114),  Assawompsett  Pond  (p.  115),  and  Sebago  Lake 
(p.  117). 

Sources  available  for  future  additions  to  the  Nashua  River  supply 
were:  Tributaries  of  the  Assabet  River  (p.  117),  Ware  River  (p.  118)^ 
Swift  River  (p.  120),  Deerfield  River  (p.  121),  Westfield  River  (p.  122), 
Squannacook  River  (p.  122). 

The  report  is  illustrated  with  maps  and  general  plans,  including 
sections  of  the  main  dam  and  dykes  at  the  Wachusett  Reservoir. 

A  very  important  report. 

Appendix  No.  i 

Growth  of  Population  in  the  Boston  Metropolitan  District. 

pp.  1 51-156 
A  statistical  study  of  the  populations  of  the  cities  and  towns  within 
the  Metropolitan  District,  with  a  graphical  estimate  of  future  popu- 
lation. 

Appendix  No.  2 

Present  and  Future  Consumption  of  Water  in  the  Metropolitan 

District.  Dexter  BrackeU,  C.E.,  pp.  157-175 

A  detailed  study  of  the  water  consumptions  in  Boston  and  suburban 

cities  and  towns.    Contains  average  per  capita  consumptions,  quan- 


432  STATE  SANITATION 

titles  used  for  domestic  purposes,  mechanical  trade  and  manufacturing 
uses,  public  uses,  and  waste;  also  fluctuations  in  consumption.  Esti- 
mates were  given  for  the  probable  future  consumptions. 

Appendix  No.  3 

Improvement  of  the  Quality  of  the  Sudbuiy  River  Water  by  the 
Drainage  of  the  Swamps  upon  the  Watershed. 

Desmond  FitzGerald,  pp.  176-187 
Contains  records  of  colors  of  various  waters  in  the  small  feeders  of 
the  Sudbury  River,  with  estimates  of  the  probable  improvements 
resulting  from  swamp  drainage. 

Appendix  No.  4 

On  the  Amount  and  Character  of  Organic  Matter  in  Soils  and  its 
Bearing  on  the  Storage  of  Water  in  Reservoirs. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  188-201 
Reprinted  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
for  1893. 

Appendix  No.  5 

Chemical  Analyses  of  Water  from  the  Sources  Investigated. 

Made  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  pp.  202-216 

Appendix  No.  6 

Water  Supply  of  Different  Qualities  for  Different  Purposes. 

Dexter  Brackett,  C.E.,  pp.  217-221 
A  study  of  a  possible  dual  supply,  —  a  spring  or  ground  water  supply 
for  domestic  uses,  and  a  supply  of  water  of  inferior  quality,  not  suit- 
able for  drinking,  for  mechanical,  manufacturing,  and  other  purposes. 

Appendix  No.  7 

Sanitary  Examination  of  Nashua  River  Watershed. 

Chester  W.  Smith,  pp.  222-223 
A  sanitary  survey  with  results  expressed  in  tabular  form. 

1896 

Improvement  of  Upper  Charles  River 

Report  of  the  Joint  Board  Consisting  of  the  Metropolitan  Park  Com- 
mission and  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Improvement  of 
Charles  River  from  the  Line  between  Watertown  and  Waltham  to 
Mother  Brook,  May,  1896. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  i-io 

This  work  was  practically  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  a  similar 
joint  board  in  1894.  It  covered  that  portion  of  the  river  above  that 
formerly  considered,  and  recommended  a  control  of  the  water  level, 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  433 

arrangements  for  the  transfer  of  boats  past  the  dams,  the  acquisition 
of  land  for  parks,  along  the  stream,  and  public  control  of  the  area 
secured. 

Report  of  the  Landscape  Architects. 

Messrs.  Olmstead  and  Eliot,  pp.  1 1-20 

Contains  data  of  an  engineering  character. 

Intermittent  Fever  in  the  Charles  River  Valley. 

Dr.  John  Jenks  Thomas 

The  care  of  low  lands  and  swamps  is  emphasized  as  a  necessary 
measure,  but  no  mention  at  this  date  was  made  of  the  mosquito  in 
connection  with  malaria. 

1897 

Improvement  of  Neponset  River 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sanitary  Condition  and 
Improvement  of  the  Neponset  Meadows. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  pp.  5-10 

This  investigation  was  undertaken  in  accordance  with  a  legislative 
act  (Chap.  8^  of  the  Resolves  of  1895).  Drainage  of  the  meadows  was 
recommended,  largely  in  order  to  protect  the  region  against  malaria, 
but  with  an  incidental  increase  in  the  usefulness  of  the  land.  This 
report  is  printed  in  full  on  page  293. 

Engineer's  Report.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  1-27 

The  general  conditions  are  first  described,  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  river,  its  pollution  by  manufacturing  waste;  next  the  condition  of 
the  meadows  (p.  14)  and  the  feasibility  of  improving  them  (p.  17). 
The  plan  is  described  on  page  20,  and  estimates  of  cost  given.  Finally 
the  probable  effect  of  the  work  upon  the  meadows. 

Report  of  the  Chemist.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  28-33 

A  chemical  investigation  of  the  pollution  and  a  study  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  purifying  the  manufacturing  wastes.  Filtration  experiments 
were  made. 

1898 

Cerebro-spinal  Meningitis. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Councilman,  Dr.  F.  B.  Mallory  and  Dr.  J.  H.  Wright, 

page  178 

This  report  covers  the  general  nature  and  history  of  the  disease,  its 
epidemic  occurrence  in  Massachusetts,  and  detailed  medical  descrip- 
tions of  many  cases.    The  bacteriology  of  the  disease  is  also  discussed. 

The  paper  is  illustrated  with  colored  plates. 


434  STATE  SANITATION 

1898 

Restoration  of  Green  Harbor 

Report  of  the  Joint  Board  Consisting  of  the  Harbor  and  Land  Com- 
missioners and  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Restoration  of 
Green  Harbor  in  the  Town  of  Marshfield,  Mass.,  January,  1898. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-24 
The  report  of  an  investigation  made  to  determine  the  advisability  of 
removing  a  dike  so  that  the  tidal  waters  might  overflow  certain  marsh 
lands  in  the  town  of  Marshfield  and  restore  the  harbor  of  Green  Har- 
bor. Estimates  of  the  relative  amounts  of  damages  and  betterments 
were  considered.  It  was  concluded  inadvisable  to  remove  the  dike. 
The  report  contains  some  interesting  local  historical  statements  and  a 
statement  as  to  the  effect  of  applying  salt  water  to  a  fresh  water 
marsh. 

Appendix  No.  i 
Report  of  the  Engineers. 

Frank  W.  Hodgdon  and  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  29-60 
The  report  contains  the  engineering  data  required  for  the  investiga- 
tion, a  study  of  the  saltness  of  the  water  above  the  dike,  the  effect  of 
reflooding  the  meadows  with  salt  water  and  suggestions  for  improving 
the  harbor  without  removing  the  dike. 

Appendix  No.  2 

Report  of  the  Engineer.  Frank  W.  Hodgdon,  pp.  61-63 

On  the  cost  of  removing  the  dike  and  of  improving  the  harbor 
without  removing  the  dike. 

Appendix  No.  3 
Report  of  the  Chemist.  H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  64-67 

Contains  the  results  of  analyses  of  soils  from  the  marshes  and  dike 
lands  and  experiments  upon  sections  of  soil. 

1898 

Sewerage  of  Salem  and  Peabody.     {House  No.  1301.) 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sewerage  of  the  City  of 
Salem  and  the  Town  of  Peabody. 

Dr.  Henry  H.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  3-16 
Made  in  accordance  with  the  Resolves  of  1895  and  1896. 
The  existing  nuisances  caused  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  about 
Salem,  the  condition  of  the  North  River  and  the  shores  and  flats  have 
warranted  the  recommendation  for  improvement  and  change.     Dis- 
posal by  discharge  into  the  sea  is  recommended. 

The  report  contains  a  description  of  various  experiments  and 
investigations  made  to  determine  the  most  suitable  point  of  outlet.  A 
description  of  the  proposed  sewerage  system  and  its  design,  together 
with  cost  data,  are  given. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  435 

Engineer's  Report.  George  A.  Kimball,  pp.  19-48 

This  report  describes  the  complete  situation,  the  topography,  popu- 
lation and  estimated  increase,  water  supply,  present  sewerage  facilities, 
industries,  nuisances  caused  by  the  sewage  and  quantity  of  sewage  in 
both  places.  The  various  methods  of  disposal  available  about  Salem  are 
enumerated  and  the  disposal  by  dilution  in  sea  water  is  recommended. 
Detailed  accounts  of  the  float  experiments  are  given  in  order  to  find 
the  proper  location  for  the  outfall  sewer  and  in  conclusion  recommen- 
dations relating  to  the  entire  system,  trunk  sewer,  pumping  station,  and 
estimates  of  cost  are  given. 

1900 

Discharge  of  Sewage  into  Boston  Harbor 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  General  Subject  of  the 
Discharge  of  Sewage  into  Boston  Harbor.  pp.  5-7 

This  special  report  was  prepared  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  the 
legislature  (Chap.  65  of  the  Resolves  of  1899).  It  was  written  by 
Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman  of  the  Board.  It  is  printed  in  full 
on  page  317,  c^  seq. 

Engineer's  Report.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  ia-87 

This  report  contains  the  fundamental  data  upon  which  the  report  of 
the  Board  was  based.  It  describes  briefly  the  existing  works,  their 
capacity  and  the  necessity  for  relieving  the  Boston  Main  Drainage 
System  (p.  20).  The  proposed  method  of  relief,  namely  the  construc- 
tion of  the  South  Metropolitan  System,  is  then  described  in  detail. 
Certain  areas  are  recommended  for  inclusion  in  this  district  and  other 
areas  were  excluded  because  local  disposal  was  more  advantageous. 
These  latter  areas  were  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Charles  and  Neponset 
drainage  areas.  On  page  64  are  given  estimates  of  population  and 
quantities  of  sewage,  and  on  page  69  a  description  of  the  proposed 
harbor  outlet  for  the  high-level  sewer.  Finally,  mention  is  made  of  the 
relief  needed  in  Braintree,  Weymouth  and  Hingham.  An  appendix 
gives  populations  of  sewer  districts  from  1850  with  estimates  to  1940. 

1901 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Sudbury  and  Concord  Rivers 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the 
Sudbury  and  Concord  Rivers. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-9 
The  results  of  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  river  are  here  given.     The 
recommendation  was  that  certain  pollutions  be  excluded,  but  that  the 
efficacy  of  lowering  the  river's  bed  be  left  for  future  study. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  10-37 

The  statistics  of  pollution  are  given,  with  water  analyses  and 
statements  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  rivers. 


436  STATE  SANITATION 

Report  upon  the  Disposal  of  Manufactural  Wastes  from  the  Mills  at 
Saxonville,  Mass.  H.  W.  Clark,  Chemist,  pp.  38-46 

The  wastes  considered  are  from  the  processes  of  wool-scouring, 
washing  yarn  and  dyeing.    Various  experiments  were  made. 

Sanitary  Conditions  in  the  Towns  Bordering  the  Sudbury  and  Concord 
Rivers.  Dr.  Frank  L.  Morse,  Medical  Inspector,  pp.  47-55 

Malaria  in  Concord.  Dr.  Theodore  Chamberlain,  pp.  56-57 

1904 
Investigation  of  the  Business  of  Undertaking  and  Embalming. 

PP;  1-4 

The  business  is  being  satisfactorily  carried  on  under  the  supervision 
of  local  health  authorities. 

1904 

Dumping  of  Garbage  and  Rubbish  in  the  Harbors  and  along  the  Sea 
Coast  of  Massachusetts  Bay.     {Senate,  No.  277.) 

The  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Dumping  of 

Garbage  and  Rubbish  into  the  Harbors  and  along  the  Sea  Coast 

of  Massachusetts  Bay.      Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  3-5 

This  report  considers  the  general  subject  of  dumping  of  refuse  into 

the  sea  and  along  the  shores.    From  observations  made  in  the  harbors 

of  several  cities  there  is  believed  to  be  little  objection  to  the  practice  of 

dumping  at  sea  providing  it  is  done  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the 

shore.    Very  little  garbage  or  other  putrescible  matter  is  disposed  of 

along  shores  —  chiefly  ashes,  house  dirt,  street  sweepings  and  rubbish. 

The  enclosing  of  such  dumping  areas  by  walls  is  recommended. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  6-25 

This  report  treats  of  the  disposal  of  refuse  matters  in  the  City  of 
Boston,  Lynn,  and  Hull  and  the  dumping  of  such  materials  into  the 
harbor  and  along  the  shores.  Observations  were  made  relative  to 
dumping  from  scows  and  disposal  along  shores. 

Appendix.  pp.  26-27 

Results  of  observations  of  dumping  of  Boston  Refuse  scows  in 
Boston  Harbor,  also  the  dumping  of  Hull  garbage.  Appended  is  a  map 
showing  location  of  dumping  grounds. 

1906 

Mystic  River  and  Alewife  Brook.     (Senate,  No.  363.) 

The  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  on  the  Purification  of  Mystic 

River,  Alewife  Brook  and  the  Adjacent  Water  Courses,  Ponds 

and  Drainage  Areas.    Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  2-18 

The  report  states  that  the  Mystic  River,  Alewife  Brook  and  their 

tributaries  are  most  seriously  polluted  by  sewage  and  manufacturing 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  437 

wastes.  The  drainage  areas  are  largely  swampy  low  lands  suitable  for 
breeding  mosquitoes  and  giving  rise  to  the  malaria  existing  in  the 
valley. 

The  construction  of  a  dam  on  the  Mystic  River  at  Craddock's 
Bridge,  equipped  with  tide  gates;  the  deepening  and  widening  of 
channels;  and  the  exclusion  of  storm  sewage  was  recommended. 

1907 

Water  Supply  of  Lynn.     (Senate,  No.  239.) 

An  Act  Relative  to  Increasing  and  Improving  the  Water  Supply  of  the 
City  of  Lynn  (Approved,  June  21,  igo6).  page  3 

A  Report  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  Water  Board  of  the 
City  of  Lynn  Relative  to  the  Increase  and  Improvement  of  the 
Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Lynn. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  4-5 
A  joint  report  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  Water  Board  of 
the  City  of  Lynn.  It  consists  of  a  description  of  the  present  supply 
and  the  conditions  which  make  a  new  supply  necessary.  Possible 
methods  for  the  improvement  and  increase  of  the  supply  are  given. 
Sand  filtration  is  recommended  as  a  means  of  purification. 

Report  of  Engineers.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  Chief  Engineer,  State  Board 

of  Health  and  George  I.  Leland,  City  Engineer  of  Lynn.     pp.  7-26 

This  joint  report  outlines  the  present  system  of  water  supply  and 

the  existing  conditions  and  character  of  the  present  polluted  sources. 

Plans  for  an  additional  supply  from  several  unpolluted  sources  are 

given  together  with  details  of  the  required  works  and  the  estimated 

costs.     Sand  filters  were  recommended.     Maps  are  included  in  the 

report. 

1908 
Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Merrimack  River 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the 
Merrimack  River.  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-4 
A  special  study  made  at  the  request  of  the  legislature  (Chap.  114  of 
the  Resolves  of  1908).  It  was  concluded  that  while  the  condition  of 
the  stream  was  not  injurious  to  the  public  health,  more  complete 
regulation  of  the  pollution,  especially  pollution  by  trade  wastes,  was 
desirable.  Particular  mention  is  made  of  the  possible  recovery  of  wool 
grease. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  6-36 

The  details  of  the  investigation  are  given  in  this  report,  as  follows: 
Description  of  the  river  (p.  7),  sources  of  pollution  (p.  8),  manufactur- 
ing wastes  (p.  13),  stream  flows  (p.  18),  comparisons  with  other  rivers 
(pp.  16,  22),  analyses  of  the  water  at  various  points  (pp.  22  and  37), 
sewer  outlets  (p.  28),  summary  (p.  34). 


438  STATE  SANITATION 

1908 

Pollution  of  Boston  Harhor  by  the_  Discharge  of  Sewage  at  Moon  Island. 

{Senate,  No.  65.) 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  on  the  Pollution  of  Boston  Harbor 
by  the  Discharge  of  Sewage  at  Moon  Island. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  2-5 

An  investigation  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  water  of  the  Boston 
Harbor  was  polluted  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  at  Moon  Island. 
Bacterial  and  chemical  examinations  showed  that  the  waters  of  the 
inner  harbor  were  more  polluted  than  the  waters  of  the  outer  harbor, 
except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sewer  outfall.  The  results 
indicated  that  the  pollution  of  the  inner  harbor  was  not  due  to  the  dis- 
charge of  sewage  at  Moon  Island  or  at  the  other  main  outlets. 

1909 

Green  Harbor 

Report  of  the  Joint  Board  Consisting  of  the  Harbor  and  Land  Com- 
missioners and  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Improvement 
of  Green  Harbor,  in  the  Town  of  Marshfield,  Mass. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-15 

A  further  study  of  the  problem  reported  on  by  a  similar  joint  board 
in  1898,  but  with  substantially  no  change  in  opinion. 

Report  of  the  Engineers. 

Frank  W.  Hodgdon  and  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  6-21 

Contains  the  engineering  data,  including  estimates  of  cost. 

1909 

Lake  Quannapowitt.     {Senate,  No.  208.) 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Flooding  of  Lands 
Bordering  Lake  Quannapowitt  and  its  Tributaries,  and  the  High- 
water  Elevation  of  the  Lake. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  2-10 

A  report  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  investigating  the  condition 
of  lands  adjacent  to  Lake  Quannapowitt  in  the  vicinity  of  Wakefield 
and  Reading,  due  to  inadequate  drainage.  The  drainage  of  the  low 
lands  in  question  by  the  removal  of  the  dam  at  Vernon  Street  on  the 
Saugus  River,  and  the  construction  of  drainage  channels  of  sufl&cient 
size  are  recommended  by  the  Board.  No  legal  high-water  mark  for 
the  lake  has  ever  been  established. 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  439 

1909 

Sewage  Disposal  for  Worcester  Insane  Hospital.     (House,  No.  197.) 

Report  of  a  Commission  to  Investigate  the  Advisability  of  Establishing 
a  System  for  the  Disposal  of  Sewage  from  the  Worcester  Insane 
Hospital  in  the  City  of  Worcester. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  2-10 

This  is  a  report  of  a  Joint  Commission  composed  of  members  from 
the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of 
Worcester.  It  consists  of  a  brief  statement  of  the  past  and  present  con- 
ditions and  the  method  of  sewage  disposal  practiced,  leading  up  to  the 
recommendation  that  hospital  sewage  be  discharged  into  the  sewerage 
system  of  the  City  of  Worcester. 

191 1 

Water  Supply  of  Salem,  Beverly,  and  Peahody  and  the  Use  of  the 

Ipswich  River 

Preliminary  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  pp.  1-2 1 

Final  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  pp.  22-37 

A  consideration  of  the  water  supply  needs  of  these  communities  and 
the  way  in  which  Ipswich  River  may  be  used  to  furnish  a  supply. 

1913 

Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Merrimack  River.     {House,  No.  2050.) 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  Sanitary  Condition  of 
the  Merrimack  River.  Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  3-6 
This  report  is  the  result  of  investigations  into  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  bed,  banks,  and  waters  of  the  Merrimack  River,  and  of  streams 
tributary  or  adjacent  thereto  in  cities  and  towns  bordering  upon  the 
river.  Recommendations  for  the  improvement  of  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  the  river  and  the  removal  of  objectionable  conditions  there- 
from are  given. 

Report  of  the  Engineer  and  Chemist.  X.  H.  Goodnough  and 

H.  W.  Clark,  pp.  7-45 
This  report  details  the  general  condition  of  the  river  along  its  course, 
particularly  at  Lawrence,  HaverhUl,  and  Lowell,  aided  by  charts 
showing  the  averages  of  monthly  analyses  of  samples  taken  at  these 
points.  The  causes  of  the  excessive  pollution  below  the  City  of  Law- 
rence are  the  sewage  from  several  cities  and  towns,  manufacturing 
wastes  from  the  process  of  wool  scouring  and  wastes  from  other  con- 
cerns. The  wool  scouring  wastes  are  very  objectionable  and  their 
effect  upon  the  river  condition  furnishes  the  basis  for  the  recommenda- 
tions as  to  the  further  treatment  of  wool  scouring  wastes.  Objection- 
able conditions  caused  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  near  the  banks  of 


440  STATE  SANITATION 

the  river  and  plans  by  which  objectionable  conditions  can  be  removed 
from  the  river  at  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Haverhill  are  designated. 
Suitable  maps  of  explanation  are  included  as  well  as  analyses  of  waters 
at  various  points  in  the  river. 

An  important  contribution  to  the  subject  of  the  disposal  of  wool 
scouring  wastes. 

1913 

Danvers  River  and  its  Estuaries.     {House,  No.  2201.) 

Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  an  Investigation  of  the 
Danvers  and  its  Estuaries. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-6 
An  investigation  made  in  accordance  with  (Chap.  84,  Resolves  of 
191 2),  to  ascertain  whether  it  would  be  feasible  and  safe  to  construct  a 
dam  at  Beverly  Bridge  and  what  changes  in  methods  of  sewage  dis- 
posal of  cities  and  towns  in  the  watershed  would  be  necessary  to 
maintain  a  sufficient  degree  of  purity  in  the  basin. 

The  report  includes  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  Danvers  River,  its 
tributaries  and  of  towns  within  the  watershed,  together  with  an 
account  of  the  objectionable  conditions  contributing  to  the  serious 
pollution  now  prevailing  therein.  Remedies  are  suggested  for  the 
elimination  of  the  gross  pollution  and  for  the  general  improvement  of 
the  river  and  basin.  It  was  thought  advisable  to  construct  a  half-tide 
dam  allowing  free  flow  of  the  tide  into  and  out  of  the  basin,  and  to 
make  certain  improvements  in  sewage  and  waste  disposal  methods. 

Report  of  the  Engineer.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  7-27 

In  this  report  are  given  in  detail  a  complete  description  of  the 
Danvers  River  and  its  tributaries,  the  existing  conditions  of  sewerage, 
methods  of  sewage  disposal  employed  within  the  watershed  and 
existing  conditions  giving  rise  to  the  serious  pollution  of  the  river  and 
basin.  Measures  necessary  for  the  prevention  of  the  present  objec- 
tionable pollution  are  stated,  and  the  practicability  of  improving  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  river  by  means  of  a  dam  at  Beverly  Bridge 
is  discussed.    The  impracticability  of  a  fresh  water  basin  was  shown. 

Chemical  Examinations  of  Water.  pp.  30-32 

1913 

Dorchester  Bay.     {House,  No.  1840.) 

Report  of  the  Joint  Board  on  an  Investigation  as  to  the  Advisability 
and  Cost  of  Improving  the  Shores  of  Dorchester  Bay. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman,  pp.  1-3 

This  report,  which  was  made  jointly  by  the  State  Board  of  Health 

and  the  Directors  of  the  Port  of  Boston,  treats  of  the  nuisances  caused 

along  the  shores  of  Dorchester  Bay  mainly  by  the  dumping  of  large 

quantities  of  refuse  of  various  kinds,  but  in  part  by  the  discharge  of 


SCIENTIFIC  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS  441 

sewage  at  times  of  storms  from  sewer  overflows  along  the  shore. 
Filling  in  a  portion  of  the  bay  was  advised  as  a  remedy  for  the  existing 
nuisance  and  moreover  it  would  add  twenty-five  acres  of  land  to  the 
area  already  filled  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bay. 

Report  of  the  Engineers. 

Frank  W.  Hodgdon  and  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  4-9 
This  report  details  the  principal  causes  of  nuisances  and  the  practi- 
cable means  of  remedying  the  existing  conditions;  with  estimates  of 
cost,  maps,  etc. 

1914 

The  Addition  of  the  Town  of  Reading  to  the  North  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
District.     {House,  No.  6.) 

A  Joint  Report  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewerage  Board  and 
the  State  Board  of  Health  Relative  to  the  Addition  of  the  Town 
of  Reading  to  the  North  Metropohtan  Sewerage  District. 

Dr.  Henry  P.  Walcott,  Chairman  for  the  Joint  Board,  pp.  1-3 
A  report  of  an  investigation  of  the  conditions  affecting  the  disposal 
of  the  sewage  of  the  town  of  Reading,  the  expediency  and  cost  of  dis- 
posing of  the  sewage  of  the  town  into  the  North  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
System,  It  was  recommended  that  the  town  of  Reading  should  be 
made  a  part  of  the  North  Metropolitan  Sewerage  District. 

An  Act  to  Provide  for  the  Addition  of  the  Town  of  Reading  to  the  North 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  District.  pp.  4-6 

A  proposed  act. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Engineers. 

Messrs.  Frederick  D.  Smith  and  X.  H.  Goodnough,  pp.  4-1 1 
A  report  by  the  chief  engineers  of  the  two  boards  giving  details  and 
estimates. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abattoirs,  see  Slaughtering. 

Abbajona  River,  225. 

Abbott,  Dr.  Samuel  W.,  300,   399-401, 

411,415,  417,418. 
Acushnet  Reservoir,  222. 
Adams,  Charles  F.,  259. 
Adams,  George  O.,  342. 
Adams,  Dr.  J.  F.  A.,  385,  388,  394,  398. 
Adams,  John  Q.,  64. 
Adams,  Dr.  Z.  B.,  398,  401. 
Aeration  of  sewage  beds,  177,  178;    of 

waters,  410. 
Aerobioscope,  68-70,  403. 
Air,  determination  of  organisms  in,  66-71, 

200;  Frankland's,  Hesse's  and  Petrie's 

methods,  67;  Tucker's  method,  67-71; 

in  textile  mills,  426. 
Air,  micro-organisms    outdoors,   71-73; 

in  hospital  wards,  65,  66,  73,  75,  76, 

403;  in  houses,  74,  76;  in  schools,  74, 

76. 
Air  and  its  impurities,  380. 
Alcohol,  use  of,  12;  efJects  of,  13-16,  379, 

383. 
Aldrich,  P.  Emory,  11,  383. 
Alewife  Brook,  pollution,  436. 
Algae,  32-36,  42-45,  144,  146,  154,  196, 

199,  397,  406. 
Alkalinity  of  ash,  422. 
Alster  Basin,  Hamburg,  255,  257,  258. 
Alum  as  a  coagulant,  188,  189,  191. 
Ames,  Dr.  Azel,  Jr.,  386,  399. 
Amherst  College,  395. 
Anderson,  John  F.,  362. 
Antitoxin,  416,  422. 
Appleton,  Julius  H.,  85,  105. 
Arsenic,  380,  400. 
Asylums,  387. 

Babcock,  Professor  James  F.,  384. 
Babington,  Professor  C.  C,  41. 


Bacillus  coli,  420. 

Bacteria  in  air,  71,  72,  74-76. 

Bacteria  in  ice,  78,  79,  81-84. 

Bacteria  in  milk,  426. 

Bacteria  in  sewage  and  sewage  efl3uents, 

172-174,  176,  178-185,  343,  345,  347. 
Bacteria  in  water,  166, 192, 193,  209-213, 

329-332,  416,  422. 
Bacterial  pollution,  420. 
Ball,  Phineas,  90,  383. 
Bates,  Theodore  C,  105. 
Beer-shops,  383. 
Beverly  Water  Supply,  439. 
Billings,  Dr.  F.  S.,  305,  312,  396. 
Birch  Pond,  Lynn,  211. 
Births  surviving  in  Massachusetts,  307, 

310,  311;    in  foreign  countries,  310, 

311- 
Blackstone  River,  58,  162,  164-168,  171, 

221,  225,  398. 
Boardman,  Dr.  A.  E.,  386,  387. 
Boardman,  A.  W.,  399. 
Boos,  Dr.  WiUiam  F.,  423. 
Boston  City  Hospital,  65. 
Boston  Harbor,  garbage,  436. 
Boston  Harbor,  pollution,  438. 
Boston  Harbor,  sewerage,  435. 
Boston  main  drainage  system,  90,  102, 

318,  322,  429. 
Boston  water,  210,  212,  222,  223,  229, 

260-273,  397;   consumption,  262,  263, 

268,  419,  431. 
Boston  Water  Board,  108. 
Bowditch,  Ernest  W.,  397,  398. 
Bowditch,  Dr.  Henry  I.,  3,  11,  12,  16,  17, 

25,  378,  381,  384,  387,  391- 
Bowditch,  Dr.  H.  P.,  119,  393,  395,  404, 

405- 
Boyd,  Dr.  James  V.  W.,  427. 
Brackett,  Dexter,  261,  402,  432. 
Bradford,  Laurence,  322. 


446 


INDEX 


Brighton  abattoir,  385,  387. 
Brooks,  Frederick,  94,  402,  429. 
Brown,  Dr.  Francis  H.,  396. 
Brown,  Herbert  R.,  423,  424,  426. 
Brues,  Charles  T.,  350,  358. 
Burial,  388. 

Calkins,  Gary  N.,  207,  230,  410-412. 

Cambridge,  sanitary  condition,  395; 
Niles  case,  395. 

Cambridge  water  supply,  396.  ;v 

Cancer,  419. 

Capillarity  in  sand,  243. 

Carnelly,  Professor  Thomas,  73. 

Carruth,  H.  S.,  249. 

Carson,  Howard  A.,  90,  429. 

Car  ventilation,  388. 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  351,  386,433. 

Chapin,  Dr.  Walter  H.,  413. 

Chapin,  William  C,  11. 

Charbon,  377. 

Charles  River  basin  improvement.  Re- 
port of  Joint  Board,  249-259,  430,  432, 

433- 

Charles  River  Improvement  Commis- 
sion, 249. 

Charles  River  valley,  drainage,  58,  64, 
86,  89,  317,  318,  320,  324,  429. 

Chase,  Philip  A.,  259. 

Chase,  WiUiam,  259. 

Chemical  precipitation  of  sewage,  188- 

191,  344,  346,  429- 
Chesborough,  E.  S.,  392,  399. 
Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir,  113,  116,  146, 

269,  270. 
Children,  growth  of,  1 19-130,  393,  395, 

405- 
Chlorine  in  sewage,   140-143,   158-160, 

183,  218. 
Chlorine  in  water,  significance  of,  218, 

219,  227. 
Chlorine,  normal,  in  Massachusetts,  139- 

142,  227. 
Cholera,  19,  401. 
Cholera  morbus,  398. 
Clark,  Harry  W.,  341,  342,  415,  417-422, 

425,  426,  433,  434,  436,  438. 
Clarke,  Eliot  C,  61,  395,  397. 


Clouston,  Dr.  T.  S.,  395. 

Coachlace  Brook,  162. 

Coal  and  water  gas,  poisoning,  47-54, 

385;  passage  through  soil,  54-57. 
Cochituate  Lake,  108,  146,  268. 
Cogswell,  Dr.  Edward  R.,  395. 
Cohn,  F.,  196. 
Cold  storage,  423. 
Color  bUndness,  394. 
Color  in  water,  106,  147,  148,  220,  221, 

229. 
Colrain,   Mass.,    epidemic    of    infantile 

paralysis,  35 1,  352. 
Concord,  malaria,  436;  sewage  disposal, 

401. 
Concord  River,  sanitary  condition,  435. 
Consumption,  384,  427. 
Contact  filters,  346-349. 
Converse,  Edmund  W.,  64. 
Cook,  Dr.  C.  H.,  403. 
Copeland,  W.  R.,  342,  416. 
Copper  sulphate,  use  in  reservoirs,  421. 
Corrosion  of  pipes,  426. 
Couch,  Dr.  John  F.,  400. 
Councilman,  Dr.  W.  T.,  433. 
Cows,  care  and  condition,  336,  337. 
Craigie's  Bridge  and  dam,  253. 
Cremation,  388. 
Curtis,  Dr.  Josiah,  312. 

Dairies,  inspection  of,  333-340,  422. 

Danvers  River,  439. 

Davis,  Joseph  P.,  261,  398,  429,  430. 

Davis,  Robert  T.,  11. 

Death-rates,  from  typhoid  fever  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, 133-137;  infantile,  and 
milk,  S33-    See  Vital  Statistics. 

Deaths  in  Massachusetts  by  age  periods, 
301,  305-308,  310,  312-316. 

Deerfield  River,  397. 

Deer  Island,  sewage  discharge,  90-92, 
loi,  104,  317,  318,  322-324,  326-331. 

de  las  Casas,  William  B.,  259. 

Derby,  Dr.  George,  11,  377,  381,  382, 
383,  386. 

Dibden,  W.  J.,  157. 

Dilution  of  sewage  in  streams,  156,  157, 
160-161,  163,  165-167. 


INDEX 


447 


Diphtheria,  action  of  bacilli  in,  275; 
antitoxin,  422;  in  Lawrence,  404. 

Diphtheria  bacilH  in  hospital  wards,  75. 

Diphtheria  bacilli :  experiments  on  toxin 
production,  278-284,  416,  417;  mor- 
phology, 284-286;  pseudo  forms,  290- 
292;  virulence,  276,  281;  toxicity,  276, 
277,  288,  289. 

Disease  prevention,  377. 

Disinfection,  401. 

Disinfection  of  sewage,  426. 

Dissolved  gases  in  water,  164,  410,  412. 

Dorchester  Bay,  440. 

Drainage,  383,  391-393,  395,  398. 

Draper,  Frank  W.,  85,   105,   259,   273, 

299,  321,  379,  380-384- 
Drown,  Dr.  Thomas  M.,  144,  218,   261, 

342,  405,  407,  408,  410,  412,  414,  415, 

432. 
Drug  inspection,  369-373. 
Dual  water  supplies,  431. 

Effective  size,  238-241,  245-248. 

Eliot,  Charles,  249. 

Elliott,  E.  B.,  307,  310,  312. 

Elutriation  of  sand,  234-235,  239,  240. 

Emerson,  Dr.  Herbert  C,  350. 

Erysipelas  bacteria,  75. 

Evaporation  from  water  surfaces,   113, 

114,  118. 
Eye-strain,  399. 

Factories,  sanitary  condition,  422. 

Factory  waste,  425. 

Farlow,  Dr.  W.  G.,  39,  144-397. 

Farm-houses,  386. 

Farm  Pond,  146. 

Farmers,  health  of,  385. 

Farr,  Dr.,  5,  300,  303,  306. 

Filtration  experiments,  419. 

Filtration  of   sewage,   94-100,  172-187, 

191,  296,  320,  342-349. 
Filtration  of  water,  26-38;    history  of, 

29;    practice  of,   29,  41;    object  and 

results  of,  30-31,  36-37;  at  Springfield, 

419. 
Fish  Ufe  and  pollution,  426. 
Fisher,  Dr.  Theodore  W.,  388. 


FitzGerald,  Desmond,  113,  204,  261,  432. 

Fixed  residue,  interpretation  of,  219,  230. 

Folsom,  Dr.  Charles  F.,  387,  390-393, 
396,  398,  399. 

Food  adulteration,  367-369,  381,  383, 
384,  396,  399- 

Food  and  drug  inspection  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 366-373,  402. 

Food  laws,  367. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  380. 

Forbes,  Fred  B.,  342. 

Frankland,  Grace,  214. 

Frankland,  Percy  F.,  214. 

French,  Henry  F.,  383. 

Fresh  Pond,  41. 

Frictional  resistance  in  sand,  243-247. 

Frost,  Wade  H.,  362. 

Frothingham,  Richard,  11. 

Ftely,  Alphonse,  397. 

Fuller,  George  W.,  342,  410,  416. 

Gage,  Stephen  de  M.,  341,  342,  419,  420, 

422,  425,  426. 
Galton's  method  of  percentile  grades, 

1 19-130,  405. 
Galvanized  iron,  effect  on  water,  386. 
Garbage,  disposal,  425,  436;    in  Boston 

Harbor,  435. 
Gas  poisoning,  47-54,  400;   experiments 

on,  47-53;  sources  of  danger,  54. 
Glen  Lewis  Pond,  Lynn,  221,  223. 
Goodnough,  X.  H.,  322,  421,  425,  427, 

433-438,  440,  441. 
Great  ponds,  383. 
Green  Harbor,  434,  438. 
Greenleaf,  Dr.  Robert  W.,  249,  252. 
Gregg,  Dr.  Donald,  424. 
Grippe,  404. 

Ground  atmosphere,  387. 
Ground  water,  106,  107,  118,  143,  220, 

221,  223-231,  415,419. 
Growth  of  children,  1 19-130,  393,  395, 

405. 

Hammond,  Dr.  J.  W.,  Jr.,  350. 
Hanson,  Dr.  Wilham  C,  428. 
Hardness  in  water,  27,  228,  416. 


448 


INDEX 


Harrington,  Dr.  Charles  W.,  333,  422. 

Hartwell,  Dr.  B.  H.,  403. 

Hassall,  Arthur  Hill,  194. 

Hastings,  Joseph  W.,  85,  259,  273. 

Hayden,  Edward  D.,  64. 

Haynes  reservoir,  220,  221. 

Hazen,  Allen,  188,  215,  232, 342, 408, 409, 

412,415. 
Health,  value  of,  387. 
Heights  of  children,  1 19-130. 
HenneUy,  Dr.  Thomas  P.,  350. 
Hm,  Dr.  Henry  B.,  381,  384. 
Hirt,  Dr.  L.,  197. 
Hitchcock,  Professor  Edward,  395. 
Hoadley,  J.  C,  387,  400. 
Hodgdon,  Frank  W.,  434,  438,  441. 
Holmes,  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell,  398. 
Holyoke,  sanitary  conditions,  398. 
Homes  of  the  poor,  384. 
Horn  Pond,  Woburn,  222,  225,  226. 
Hospitals,  386,  387,  394,  395,  396,  415; 

air  of,  403. 
Hotels,  drainage,  397. 
House  drainage,  391,  395. 
Housing,  378. 

Hull,  James  W.,  259,  273,  299,  321. 
Hulwa,  Dr.  Franz,  197. 
Hydrolytic  tanks,  347. 

Ice,  413;  analyses,  78-83;  investigation 
of  supplies,  77;  pollution  of  supplies, 
77-85,  403. 

Index,  general,  396,  401,  407,  410. 

Infant  mortality,  333,  383,  424. 

Infantile    paralysis    in    Massachusetts, 

350-365,  427- 

Infantile  paralysis,  epidemiology,  350- 
352,  356;  prognosis,  357;  transmis- 
sion, 353-356,  358-365- 

Influenza,  404. 

Insane,  381. 

Intemperance,  letter  on,  12-16. 

Intermittent  fever,  see  Malaria. 

Interpretation  of  water  analyses,  218- 
231,  405,412. 

Iron  in  water,  196,  224,  229,  418. 

Iron  salts  as  coagulants,  188-191. 

Isochlors,  139-142,  227. 


Jamaica  Pond,  223. 

Jarvis,  Dr.  Edward  W.,  381,  383,  386. 

Jeffries,  Dr.  B.  Joy,  399. 

Johnson,  Dr.  A.  H.,  394. 

Jones,  Dr.  E.  V.,  85,  105,  401. 

Jones,  Dr.  Frederick  W.,  401. 

Jones,  Henry  N.,  427. 

Jones,  Dr.  Lyman  A.,  350. 

Jordan,  Edwin  O.,  208,  210,  410. 

Kean,  Alexander  L.,  200,  201. 
Kimball,  George  A.,  435. 
Kirkwood,  James  P.,  29,  388,  390. 

Lawrence,    diphtheria    in,    404;     water 

supply,  414. 
Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  137,  172, 

193,  199,  203,  206,  215,  232,  341-349- 
Lead  in  water,  417. 
Lead  poisoning,  377,  401,  428. 
Leland,  George  T.,  436. 
Leprosy,  399. 
Life    tables,    English,    300,    302,    304; 

limitations     of     accuracy,     301-305; 

value  of,  312,  316. 
Life  tables  for  Massachusetts,  300-316. 
Lime  and  iron  as  coagulants,  188-191. 
Lincoln,  Dr.  D.  F.,  261,  394,  400. 
Linenthal,  Dr.  Harry,  428. 
Liquor,  intoxicating,  12,  13-16,  379,  383. 
Live  stock,  transportation,  387. 
Local  Boards  of  Health,  386. 
London  water  supply,  194. 
Loss  on  ignition,  interpretation  of,  219, 

231. 
Lothrop,  Thornton  K.,  85,  105. 
Lovett,  Dr.  Robert  W.,  350. 
LoweU,  health  of,  391. 
Lucas,  Dr.  WiUiam  P.,  350. 
Ludlow  Reservoir,  148,  154,  211,  220. 
Lynn,  sanitary  condition,   393;    water 

supply,  436. 
Lythgoe,  Hermann  C.,  366,  422. 

Macdonald,  J.  D.,  198. 
McLauthlin,  George  V.,  413. 
Malarial  fever,  19,  252,  295, 296, 298,398, 
401,  403,  433,  436. 


INDEX 


449 


Mallory,  Dr.  F.  B.,  433. 

Manual  of  Public  Health  Statutes,  402. 

Mark,  Professor  E.  L.,  403,  416. 

Marlborough,  416. 

Martin,  A.  C,  379. 

Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission, 
90,  91,  294. 

Massachusetts  State  Census,  304,  306. 

Massachusetts  State  Registration  Re- 
port (1857),  307,  312. 

May,  Dr.  Arthur  W.,  350. 

Mead,  Henry  E.,  322. 

Mead,  Julian  G.,  299,  321. 

Meat  supply,  387. 

Medfield,  sewage  disposal,  402. 

Meriam,  J.  N.,  387. 

Merrimack  River,  164,  165,  266,  267, 
396,  437,  438. 

Metal  pipes,  corrosion  of,  426. 

Metals  in  water,  417,  418. 

Metropolitan  Sewerage,  86-105,  317- 
321,  322-332,  379,  399,  427,  429,  435, 
436,  440,  441. 

Metropolitan  Water  Supply,  cost  figures, 
269,  272;    report  upon,  260-273,  430, 

431- 
Micro-organisms  in  air  (see  also  Air),  65- 

76. 
Microscopical  analysis  of  water,    192- 

207,  410;  old  methods,  194-198;  new 

methods,  199-207. 
Microscopic  organisms  in  ice,  79. 
Microscopic    organisms    in    water    and 

sewage,  32-36,  42-4S,  i44,  146,  i54, 

192,  193,  196,  218,  224,  230,  406,  412. 
Middleton  Pond,  226. 
Milk,    adulteration,    384;     bacteria   in, 

424,  426. 
Milk,    production    and  handling,   333- 

340. 
Milk  and  disease,  333-336,  339. 
Mill  dams,  381. 
Millers  River,  397. 
Mills,  Hiram  F.,  85,  105,  131,  172,  199, 

232,  259,  273,  299,  321,  342,  405-407, 

414-428. 
Mind,  diseases  of,  393. 
Moon  Island  sewage  discharge,  loi,  102, 


104,  317-319,  322,  323,  325-327,  330- 

331- 
Morse,  Dr.  Frank  L.,  435. 
Morse,  Professor  John  L.,  350. 
Mystic  Lake,  108,  222,  225,  380,  397. 
Mystic  River,  pollution,  435. 
Mystic  River  valley,  drainage,  58,  64,  86, 

89,  92,  324,  397,  429. 

Nahant,  sewerage,  399. 

Nantucket,  sanitary  conditions,  400. 

Nashua  River,  163,  267-269,  271,  432. 

Naukeag  Pond,  155. 

Neponset  Meadows,  sanitary  condition 

and  improvement,  293-299,  433. 
Neponset  River,  225,  294,  295,  297,  317, 

318,320,324,330. 
New  Bedford  water,  220,  221. 
Nichols,  Dr.  Arthur  H.,  377,  381,  384, 

391- 
Nichols,  WilUam   Ripley,    26,   47,   144, 

380,  382,  385,  387-391,  394,  396,  397, 

400. 
Niles  Case,  Cambridge,  395. 
Nitrification  and  the  nitrifying  organism, 

208-217,  219,  344,  410. 
Nitrification    in    water,    208-213,    219, 

225-227. 
Nitrification  of  sewage,   172-178,   181- 

183,  343-346,  348,  408. 
Nitrogen,  in  water,  154,  155,  208-212, 

219-226. 
Nut  Island,  sewage  discharge,  319,  324. 

Odors  and  tastes  in  water,  33, 35, 42, 106, 
144-155,  162,  163,  218,  230,  295,  406, 
412. 

Oleomargarine,  402. 

Oliver,  Dr.  F.  E.,  381,  391. 

Oliver,  Dr.  Henry  K.,  383. 

Ohnstead  and  Eliot,  430,  433. 

Olmsted,  Frederick  L.,  249. 

Opium,  381,  403. 

Organic  matter  in  sewage,  343-349. 

Organic  matter  in  soils,  432. 

Organic  matter  in  water,  219,  251,  295, 
325- 

Osgood,  Dr.  Robert  B.,  350. 


450 


INDEX 


Oxygen  consumed,  interpretation  of,  219, 

228. 
Oxygen  dissolved,  410,  412. 

Parasites,  382. 

Parker,  Professor  G.  H.,  199,  200,  406. 

Peabody,  sewerage,  434,  435. 

Peabody,  water  supply,  439. 

Peat  in  sewage  filters,  173,  174,  343- 

Peddock's  Island,  sewage  discharge,  319, 

324,  326,  327,  330. 
Pegan  Brook,  162. 
Percentile  grades,  1 19-130. 
Philbrick,  Edward  S.,  391. 
Physical  education,  395. 
Physician  of  the  future,  17,  21,  23,  24. 
PiUing's  Pond,  154. 
Pinkham,  Dr.  J.  D.,  402. 
Pinkham,  Dr.  J.  G.,  393. 
Plague,  19. 

Plunkett,  Mrs.  Thomas  F.,  386. 
Poisons,  377. 

Poliomyelitis,  see  Infantile  Paralysis. 
Political  economy  of  health,  386. 
Pollution  of  drinking-water,  139-142, 146, 

153-155,  165,  166,  187,  221. 
Pollution  of  streams,  89,  156-171,  250, 

25s,  256,  294-296,  298,  299,  396,  407, 

420;    of  Boston  Harbor,  91-93,  100- 

105,  317-319.  322-331,  438. 
Population   of    Massachusetts    by   age 

periods,   301,   313,   314;    of   Boston, 

metropolitan  district,  431. 
Porter,  Charles  H.,  259,  273,  299,  321. 
Poultry,  cold  storage  of,  423. 
Prescott,  S.  C,  415. 
Preservatives  in  food,  369. 
Preventive  Medicine,   17-25,  377,  3^4; 

growth,     18;     results,     20,     21;     for 

Massachusetts,    22    {see    also    State 

Medicine). 
ProbabiUty  of  life,  308,  313-315- 
Prudden,  Dr.  T.  M.,  79. 
PubUc  Health,  letter  on,  9-1 1. 

Quannapowitt,  Lake,  438. 

Radlkofer,  Ludwig,  195. 
Rafter,  George  W.,  204-207. 


Rags,  infection,  402. 

Rainfall,  107,  108,  113,  114. 

Reading,  sewage  of,  440. 

Refuse,  disposal  of,  425. 

Registration,  391,  393. 

Reservoirs,   storage   of   water  in,    144- 

147. 
Residue  on  evaporation,  230. 
Richards,  Abraham  L.,  259. 
Richards,  Mrs.  EUen  H.,  208,  210,  396, 

409,  416. 
Richardson,  Dr.  Mark  W.,  350,  359,  360. 
Roberts,  Charles,  119. 
Rosenau,  Dr.  Milton  J.,  350,  354,  358, 

427. 
Royal     Commission    on    Metropolitan 

Sewage  Discharge,  157. 

Salem  fire,  sanitation,  428, 

Salem,  water  supply,  439. 

Sand  and  gravel  analysis,  232-248,  412, 

415- 
Sand  for  microscopical  analysis,  206. 
Sands  and  gravels,  physical  properties 

of,  232-248,  344. 
Sands  and  gravels  in  filters,  172-175, 179, 

243-248,  344. 
Sanitary  hints,  391. 
Saugus  marshes  for  sewage  disposal,  92, 

94,  98,  100,  429. 
Sawyer,  Warren,  11. 
Saxonville,  trade  wastes,  436. 
Scarlet  fever,  394. 
School  hygiene,  386. 
School  sanitation,  394,  398,  400,  402. 
Sedgwick-Rafter  method,  199-207. 
Sedgwick,  Professor  William  T.,  47,  65, 

192,  342,  400,  409,  413-416. 
Self-purification  of  streams,  166-171,407. 
Septic  tanks,  346,  347. 
Service  pipes,  421. 
Sewage  analyses,  158-160,  174,  178-185, 

188,  220,  345. 
Sewage  and  shellfish,  322-332. 
Sewage  disposal,  89-92,  100-105,  156- 

164,  317-326,  378,  382,  383,  389,  390, 

393,  401. 
Sewage,  effect  of  freezing,  84. 


INDEX 


451 


Sewage  effluents,  172-183,  343,  348,  349, 
412;  compared  to  drinking-water,  183- 
187. 

Sewage  purification  at  Lawrence  Experi- 
ment Station,  341-349,  425. 

Sewage  sludge,  345-347- 

Sewage  treatment,  90-92,  94,  172-191, 
296,  320,  341-349,  408,  409,  4iS>  420, 
425,  426,  429. 

Sewage  volumes,  158,  164,  317,  318,  322- 

324- 
Sewerage,  392,  393,  397. 
Sewing  machines,  381. 
Sharpies,  Professor  S.  P.,  399. 
Shellfish  and  sewage  polluted  water,  322- 

332,  421,  422. 
Sheppard,  Dr.  Philip  A.  E.,  350. 
Slaughtering,  377,  382,  384,  385. 
Smallpox,  19,  382. 
Smith,  Chester  W.,  432. 
Smith,  Frederick  D.,  440. 
Smith,  Dr.  Theobald,  274,  350,  416,  417, 

422. 
Soil  analysis,  414. 
Soil  moisture,  19,  295. 
Soil  stripping,  147,  148,  155. 
Soils,  organic  matter  in,  432. 
Somerville,  sanitary  condition,  400. 
Spectacle  Island,  325,  327. 
Spot  Pond,  269,  270,  272,  273. 
Spring  waters,  410,  419. 
Springfield,  water  purification,  419. 
Stable  fly  and  infantile  paralysis,    354, 

358-365. 
Stables,  conditions  at  dairies,  336-338. 
Stacy's  Brook,  162,  226. 
State  Board  of  Health,  duties,  6,  7,  9,  10. 
State   Medicine,    address   on,    3-8;     in 

Great  Britain, 4-6;  in  Massachusetts,6. 
Statutes,  manual,  402. 
Stearns,  Frederic  P.,  106,  144,  156,  249, 

253,  260,  265,  271,  404,  406,  429,  430. 
Stebbins,  Solomon  B.,  64. 
Storage  of  water,  110-112,  116,  117, 144- 

155,  269,  396. 
Storer,  Professor  Frank  H.,  380. 
Stream  flow,  107-109,  112,  116-118,  157, 

161,  164,  166. 


Sudbury  River,  108-111,  113,  114,  117, 
118,  140,  146,  164,  169,  261,  267-269, 
432. 

Sudbury  River,  sanitation,  435. 

Sulphur  organisms,  45. 

Surface  water,  106,  107,  118,  208,  210- 
213,  220-223,  225-231. 

Swamp  drainage,  432. 

Swan,  Charles  H.,  90,  429. 

Sweeping,  effect  upon  organisms  in  air, 

74- 
Swimming  pools,  426. 
Swine,  trichinosis,  416. 


Taunton,  sanitary  conditions,  401 . 

Ten  Broeck,  Dr.  Carl,  427. 

Textile  mills,  air  in,  426. 

Thames  River,  194. 

Thomas,  Dr.  J.  J.,  433. 

Tidal  waters,  421. 

Tin  in  water,  417. 

Tobey,  Gerard  C,  259,  273,  299,  321. 

Towels,  contamination,  427. 

Trade  wastes,   164,   165,   225,   295-297, 

345,  348,  349,  425,  436. 
Trichina,  377,  396. 
Trichinosis,  400,  403,  416. 
Trickling  filters,  343,  345-349. 
Tubercle  bacillus  in  hospital  wards,  75. 
Tuberculosis,   384,   428;   among   cattle, 

336. 
Tucker,  Greenleaf  R.,  65. 
Tuckerman,  Leverett  S.,  64. 
Turbidity  in  water,  218. 
Typhoid  bacillus,  131,  410;   in  air,  132; 

in  milk,  321;   in  water,  132,  133,  136- 

138. 
Typhoid  fever,  377,  413,  414;  and  milk, 

339,   414,   41:6;    and  water  supplies, 

131-138,  262,  339,  405. 


Undertaking,  435. 

Uniformity    coefiicient,    238-241,    245- 

248. 
Upham,  Dr.  J.  Baxter,  386. 
Uroglena,  411. 


452 


INDEX 


Vaccination,  398. 

Vegetable  growths,  32-36,  39-46,  192, 
218,  220,  224,  226,  230,  295. 

Vegetable  parasites,  382. 

Ventilation,  74,  396;  cars,  388;  school- 
houses,  379,  402. 

Vital  statistics,  300-316,  379,  380,  391, 

393,  404,  411,  417-419- 
Voids  in  sand,  242. 

Wachusett  Reservoir,  268. 
Walcott,  Dr.  Henry  P.,  58,  85,  105,  249, 
259,  260,  273,  293,  299,  321,  350,  398, 

399,  429,  430,  432-436- 
Walden  Pond,  Lynn,  220. 
Walker,  Ernest  L.,  274,  416,  417. 
WaUing,  H.  F.,  383. 
Ware  River,  268,  272. 
Waring,  George  E.,  Jr.,  398. 
Warington,  Robert,  214. 
Wastes,  manufacturing,   164,   165,   225, 

295-297,  345,  348,  349,  425- 

Water  analyses:  ground  waters,  185, 
211,  221,  223-231,  415,  419;  micro- 
scopical, 192-207;  polluted  waters, 
103,  161-163,  167-171,  221,  225,  322, 
326-331,  389,  397;  ponds  and  reser- 
voirs, 149-153,  220-223,  225-231,  397, 
43  2 ;  possible  Metropolitan  sources,43  2 . 

Water  analyses,  interpretation  of,  218- 
231,  405,  412. 

Water  consumption,  262,  263,  268,  419, 

431- 
Water  pollution,  problems,  58-61;   legal 
control  in  Massachusetts,  60,  61  {see 
also  Pollution). 


Water,  properties  of,  defined,  27,  28. 

Water  purification,  26-38,  394,  407,  419. 

Water  softening,  27. 

Water  supply,  classification  of  Massa- 
chusetts waters,  139-143,  406;  effect 
of  storage,  144-155,  407;  of  towns, 
382,  389;  report  upon  Metropolitan, 
260-273;  selection  of  sources,  106- 
118,  404;  statistics,  406,  419;  well 
water,  400. 

Watersheds,  108,  no,  112,  114,  117,  266, 
267. 

Waters  of  Massachusetts  classified,  139- 

143- 
Water  weeds,  40-42. 
Waterworks,  399,  401,  403,  419. 
Watuppa  Lake,  222. 
Weights  of  children,  1 19-130. 
Wenham  Lake,  229. 
Westfield  River,  396. 
White,  Dr.  James  C,  382. 
Wigglesworth,  Dr.  Edward,  309. 
WUIiston,  Professor  S.  W.,  205. 
Winnipiseogee  Lake,  265,  266. 
Winogradsby,  214-216. 
Winsor,  Dr.  Frederick,  386,  390,  395. 
Withington,  Dr.  Charles  F.,  402. 
Women,  physique  of,  404. 
Wood,  Dr.  Benjamin,  350. 
Wood,  Dr.  Edward  S.,  396,  400. 
Woodman,  Miss  C.  A.,  203. 
Worcester,   sewage   disposal,   383,   398; 

at  Insane  Hospital,  439. 
Wright,  Dr.  J.  H.,  350,  433. 

Zinc  in  water,  386,  417. 


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